Digitized  by  the  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/freehanddrawingmOOcrosrich 


^ati0txal  gvatxrtog  ^ooUs 


Free-Hand  Drawing 


A  MANUAL  FOR 


TEACHERS    AND    STUDENTS 


BY 

ANSON    K.  CROSS 

Instructor  in  the  Alassachusetts  Normal  Art  School,  and  in  the  School  of  Drawing  and 

Painting,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston.     Author  of '^^  Free-Hand  Drawing, 

Light  and  Shade,  and  Free-Ha7td  Perspective,^''  and  a  Series  of 

Text  afid  Drawing  Books  for  the  Public  Schools. 


GINN  &   COMPANY 

BOSTOxN  .  NEW  YORK  •  CHICAGO  •  LONDON 


Copyright,  1895 
By  ANSON   K.  CROSS 


ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 
310.6 


Cftc   gtftenatum   Sj^rtett 

GINN  &   COMPANY.  PRO- 
PRIETORS  .  BOSTON  •  U.S.A. 


{{pa-i-iOD  ^JBi^s  01  XsB9  SI  ;i  ;^q;  UMoqs  U99q  s^q  Ij  'opsiia^ 
31  uoipna;sui  poqos  oqqnd  S93B[d  aiuos  ui  ;nq  \  Sup^pip  pu^ 
^uiXdoD  SB  qons  *spoq;9ui  pDiuBqoaui  jo  9sn  9q;  ;noq;iA\  SuiAVBjp 
LIT  suoss9[  9AiS  o;  9|qissodiui  ;i  >iuiqi  sa9qDB9;  Xue]^  -ppoiu 
^uiAv^ap  p'BX9  9q;  UBq;  Xba\  siq;  ui  iB9a;  o;  a9iSB9  9aB  qDiqm 
>p9fqns  JO  sSuiMBip  Di;si;aB  9>{Bui  o;  {idnd  9q;  9a'Bd9ad  Xbui 
DUB  'a9q;ou'B  uBq;  pDiu^qogui  SS9{  9q  Xblu  SuiMmp  9uo  '9i;si;aB 
)q  ^ouuBD  SuiMBap  b  qons  ji  puB  *9qno  b  jo  SuiMBap  9ui|;no  we 
^ui^iBui  JO  sXbav  opsiy-BUi  puB  opsi^aB   'a9A9M0q  '9aB  9J9qx 

•9onpoad  o;  9|qissodiui  ;ou  ji  ;^nDTj^ip  u9;jo  si  ppoiu 
)u;9ui09S  B  JO  SuiMBap  9uit;no  DpspjB  ub  puB  'g^SuB  pUB  pA9{ 

93UBlSip    U9AlS    i(uB    ^B    9qn0    B    JO     U0i;B;U9S9jd9a     ;D9JaOD    9U0 

^nq  9q  ubo  9a9qx  qB0iUBq09iu  ;ou  ji  *dijiiu9ids  puB  *XaopBj 
spBSun  '9;9[duioDui  9q  u9;jo  ;snui  ;i  •uoiss9jdx9  jo  spoqpui 
Buopid  i[B  JO  tBuoi;u9Auoo  ;soai  9q;  si  SuiAVBJip  9uipno  uy 
5[Ooq  J9qiouB  JO  p9fqns  9q;  9pBiu  si  'sa9q9B9;  Xubui  o;  ;s9J91ui 
[O  SI  qDiqM  *9pBqs  puB  V\^]\  '^uo  SuiAVBjp  9uq;no  S9pnpui 
jopDna^sui  9SoqM  sJ9qDB9;  jo  J9quinu  9Sjb{  9q;  jo  sp99u  9qi 
1991U  Xbui  puB  *9Aisu9dx9ui  9q  Xbiu  >[Ooq  siqi  ;Bq;  J9pao  uj 

'SuiMBjp 

DUBq-99Jj  SuiXpnp  JO  spoqpui  opsqjB  jo  uoi;Biu9S9ad  9q:} 
51  p9[qo  sii  'SuiMBjp  i(aB;u9Ui9p  JO  s;u9pn;s  pu^  sa9qDB9:i 
;{B  joj  puB  'sa9qoB9;  poqos  oqqnd  aoj  p9pu9;ui  si  :5iooq  smx 


■HDVdHHd 


rV/f. 


IV  PREFACE. 

in  the  lower  grades,  and  not  impossible  for  the  pupils  of 
advanced  grades  to  change  from  mechanical  to  artistic 
methods. 

In  order  that  this  change  may  be  made,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  teachers  become  artists,  but  that  they  give  to  the 
subject  the  time  required  to  enable  them  to  draw  simple  sub- 
jects correctly. 

The  methods  presented  have  been  tested  in  elementary  and 
advanced  schools,  and,  if  followed,  will  give  ability  to  draw 
correctly  from  nature  in  an  artistic  manner. 

To  secure  satisfactory  results  it  is  necessary  that  those 
giving  the  most  elementary  instruction  understand  the  require- 
ments of  more  advanced  work.  For  this  reason  the  chapter 
on  composition  has  been  given,  and  no  attempt  has  been  made 
to  arrange  the  book  so  that  teachers  may  study  simply  the 
directions  for  their  special  grades. 

ANSON  K.  CROSS. 


INTRODUCTION. 


A  DRAWING  is  the  expression  of  an  idea  :  art  must  come 
from  within,  and  not  from  without.  This  fact  has  led  some  to 
assert  that  the  study  of  nature  is  not  essential  to  the  student, 
and  that  careful  training  in  the  study  of  the  representation  of 
the  actual  appearance  is  mechanical  and  harmful.  Such  per- 
sons forget  that  all  art  ideas  and  sentiments  must  be  based 
upon  natural  objects,  and  that  a  person  who  cannot  represent 
truly  what  he  sees  will  be  entirely  unable  to  express  the 
simplest  ideal  conceptions  so  that  others  may  appreciate 
them.  Study  of  nature  is,  then,  of  the  first  and  greatest 
importance  to  the  art  student. 

A  drawing  may  be  made  in  outline,  in  light  and  shade,  or  in 
color.  The  value  of  the  drawing  artistically,  does  not  depend 
upon  the  medium  used,  but  upon  the  individuality  of  the 
draughtsman  making  it.  The  simplest  pencil  sketch  may  have 
much  more  merit  than  an  elaborate  colored  drawing  made  by 
one  who  is  unable  to  represent  truly  the  facts  of  nature,  or  who 
sees,  instead  of  the  beauty  and  poetry,  the  ugliness  and  the 
imperfections  of  the  subject. 

The  value  depends  as  little  upon  the  way  the  medium  is 
used  as  upon  the  medium  chosen,  providing  of  course  that  the 
technique  is  not  unduly  prominent  or  offensive.  Those  who 
assert  that  they  have  found  the  only  medium  fit  to  be  used  or 


Vi  INTRODUCTION. 

the  only  satisfactory  way  of  handling  the  medium,  thus  prove 
their  ignorance  of  the  subject  which  they  attempt  to  teach. 

The  first  question  for  the  teacher  is  '*  Shall  the  pupil  work  in 
color,  in  light  and  shade,  or  in  outline?"  Color  is,  for  the 
public  schools  at  least,  out  of  the  question.  Not  only  is  it 
expensive,  but  impossible  to  teach.  Until  the  students  have 
been  educated  to  see  the  actual  colors  of  the  spectrum,  even 
the  strongest  artist,  as  teacher,  would  not  be  able  to  obtain 
satisfactory  results,  and  for  the  public  school  teacher  to  attempt 
to  teach  form,  light  and  shade,  and  color  at  first  and  at  once  is 
entirely  beyond  reason. 

Choice  of  the  drawing  to  be  made  lies  between  a  light  and 
shade  and  an  outline  drawing.  For  students  outside  the  public 
schools,  light  and  shade  should  be  taken  up  as  early  as  possible. 
After  a  few  lessons  in  outline,  a  few  in  light  and  shade  can  be 
given,  and  the  two  lines  of  study  may  then  be  carried  on 
together.  In  the  public  schools  the  study  of  light  and 
shade  at  first  or  in  the  lower  grades  is  unwise,  and  generally 
impossible  to  pursue  with  advantage  to  the  pupils,  for  the 
reason  that  in  the  classroom  it  is  almost  impossible  to  get 
good  light  and  shade  upon  objects  placed  so  that  they  may  be 
seen  by  the  pupils.  In  the  public  schools  the  first  instruction 
must  then  be  in  outline,  and  in  the  upper  grades  or  the  high 
schools,  or  whenever  all  the  conditions  are  favorable,  the  study 
of  light  and  shade  may  be  begun. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I.  PAGE 

Outline  Drawing i 

General  Directions 3 

Drawing  from  Single  Objects  . 4 

Drawing  from  Groups 9 

CHAPTER  II. 

Objects  for  Study        ........  .21 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Glass  Slate 26 

CHAPTER  IV.     Special  Directions  for  Teachers. 

Drawing  on  the  Slate 31 

Foreshortening 34 

Drawing  on  Paper 39 

Blackboard  Drawing       .........  41 

CHAPTER  V.     Tests 42 

CHAPTER  VI.  Free-hand  Perspective  or  Model  Drawing  .  54 
Lesson  I.  Foreshortened  Planes  and  Lines  .  .  .  .56 
Lesson  IT.       Parallel   and   Equal  Lines   not  Foreshortened. 

Vertical  Lines 57 

Lesson  III.      The  Horizontal  Circle 57 

Lesson  IV.       Parallel  Lines .  58 

Lesson  V.        Parallel  Retreating  Horizontal  Lines          .        .  59 

Lesson  VI.       The  Square 59 

Lesson  VII.     The  Appearance  of  Equal  Spaces  on  any  Line       .  60 


VIU  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Lesson  VIII.   The  Triangle            .......  6i 

Lesson  IX.      The  Prism 6i 

Lesson  X.        The  Cylinder            62 

Lesson  XI.      The  Cone 64 

Lesson  XII.     The  Regular!  Hexagon 64 

Lesson  XIII.  The  Centre  of  the  Ellipse  does  not  Represent 

THE  Centre  of  the  Circle  .        .        .        .        .  65 

Lesson  XIV.    Concentric  Circles 65 

Lesson  XV.     Vase  Forms 66 

Lesson  XVI.   Frames         .        .        .        .      • 67 

Drawings  illustrating  the  Rules 68 

CHAPTER  VII.     Scientific  Perspective  and  Model  Drawing       .        78 

CHAPTER  Vin.     Composition 119 

DEFINITIONS o         ...„,.       133 


FREE-HAND    DRAWING. 

CHAPTER   I. 
OUTLINE    DRAWING. 

An  Outline  Drawing  may  be  made  in  many  different  ways.  It 
may  be  drawn  with  the  brush,  charcoal,  crayon,  pen  and  ink,  or 
pencil.  The  drawing  is  commonly  made  upon  paper,  although  it 
may  be  made  on  other  substances.  The  question  for  the  teacher 
is  "Which  is  the  best  medium  for  beginners  to  use?"  The  best 
medium  is  that  which  requires  the  least  thought  to  handle  and  the 
least  time  to  prepare  and  care  for ;  it  is  that  which  allows  the  student 
to  give  all  his  attention  to  the  comparison  of  his  drawing  with  the 
object,  and  which  admits  most  readily  of  changes.  It  is  evident 
that  the  choice  lies  between  charcoal  and  pencil,  for  the  only  value 
of  the  work  is  in  the  training  and  knowledge  given  by  it.  A  charcoal 
drawing  can  be  readily  changed,  but  to  provide  this  material  for 
classes  in  the  public  schools  would  be  very  expensive,  and  the  cause 
of  very  unclean  schoolrooms.  Crayon  and  colored  chalk  have  no 
advantage  over  pencil :  on  the  contrary  they  are  more  expensive, 
and  a  drawing  made  with  them  cannot  be  changed  except  with  great 
difficulty.  The  pencil  is  not  only  cheaper  and  neater,  but  it  requires 
less  time  to  sharpen,  and  when  rightly  used  the  correct  lines  can  be 
obtained  without  any  erasing;  so  that  this  simple  means  is  really 
the  best  for  educational  purposes. 

When  the  crayon,  red  chalk,  pen  and  ink,  or  the  brush  is  used 
in  the  lower  grades,  the  probabilities  are  that  the  aim  of  the  in- 
struction given  is  for  something  to  exhibit,  instead  of  for  the  best 
education. 

The  pencil  will  make  a  drawing  with  an  amount  of  finish  and 
effect,  ranging  from  an  outline  of  the  simplest  nature  to  a  rendering 
of  all  the  values  of  a  complicated  subject ;  and  when  it  is  understood. 


2  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

that  the  only  worth  of  the  drawing  lies  in  the  truthfulness  with  which 
it  represents  nature,  we  shall  find  childish  attempts  to  handle  diffi- 
cult mediums  less  frequent  than  at  present. 

It  is  often  said  that  there  are  no  outlines  in  nature.  In  a  way 
this  is  true,  but  it  cannot  be  understood  to  mean  that  form  is  un- 
necessary or  that  it  may  be  slighted.  The  student  cannot  learn 
to  paint  or  to  make  pictures  in  any  medium,  without  drawing  the 
forms  of  the  objects.  The  defining  of  the  lights  and  shades  and  the 
various  bits  of  color  which  are  seen  in  nature  is  necessary  to  give 
solidity  and  character  to  a  picture,  and  it  is  useless  to  think  that 
anything  can  be  accomplished  with  color  or  light  and  shade  if  ap- 
proximate representations  of  form  cannot  be  made. 

Every  object  has  definite  form  and  size,  and  though  it  may  not 
be  outlined,  it  has  boundaries.  Although  the  representation  of 
objects  in  outline  is  at  best  a  conventional  and  imperfect  means 
of  expression,  so  far  often  as  even  form  is  concerned,  the  student 
can  be  taught  to  observe  effects,  and  may  often  succeed  in  con- 
veying a  fair  impression  of  the  character  of  the  object,  and  of 
varieties  of  surface  and  texture.  He  will  find  that  the  study  of  ap- 
pearances, and  their  representation  as  fully  as  possible,  even  in  so 
simple  a  way  as  outline  drawing,  will  in  a  great  measure  prepare  the 
way  for  work  in  light  and  shade  and  color.  The  whole  question  is 
simply  one  of  seeing,  and  the  student  should  not  trouble  himself 
over  technique,  as  his  only  aim  should  be  a  true  representation  of 
nature,  and  it  is  of  no  consequence  that  such  drawings  by  different 
people  may  be  produced  in  different  ways. 

The  most  important  points  in  free-hand  drawing  are  freedom, 
directness,  and  accuracy.  It  is  difficult  to  give  directions  which  will 
produce  these  results,  as  individuality  will  prevent  all  from  working 
in  a  uniform  way.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  give  general  direc- 
tions for  the  work,  and  especially  to  advise  the  pupil  not  to  follow 
the  directions  given  in  many  books,  written  by  those  who  are  not 
artists  or  draughtsmen. 

Chapter  I.  presents  the  general  information  required  by  art 
students  and  all  teachers,  even  those  of  the  most  elementary  work. 
Special  directions  are  given  in  following  chapters  in  order  that  the 
most  important  facts  may  be  presented  first. 


OUTLINE   DRAWING. 


GENERAL    DIRECTIONS. 


First,  the  surface  on  which  the  drawing  is  made  must  be  held 
so  that  it  is  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  seen.  If 
the  book  or  paper  is  placed  upon  the  desk,  and  the  pupil  looks  down 
obliquely  at  it,  the  drawing  upon  it  must  be  foreshortened  so  that  it 
is  impossible  for  the  student  to  see  what  he  is  doing. 

If  the  drawing  is  upon  a  block  or  upon  paper  placed  upon  a 
board,  it  may  be  held  at  the  proper  angle  by  the  left  hand.  If  the 
drawing  is  made  in  a  drawing  book,  the  book  must  be  fastened  to  a 
stiff  piece  of  cardboard  or  a  thin  drawing  board,  so  that  it  may  be 
properly  held. 

Second,  the  paper  or  book  should  be  held  as  far  as  possible  from 
the  eyes.  The  student  should  sit  back  in  the  chair,  and  holding  the 
pencil  very  lightly,  should  suggest  or  indicate  the  position  of  the 
drawing  upon  the  paper  by  light  lines,  drawn  quickly  with  a  move- 
ment of  the  entire  arm  from  the  shoulder.  Before  beginning  to 
draw,  the  student  should  practise  this  free  arm  movement  by  drawing 
horizontal,  vertical,  and  oblique  lines.  These  lines -should  be  drawn 
and  redrawn,  the  arm  passing  rapidly  along  the  paper,  and  the  pencil 
point  tracing  line  after  line  as  near  the  first  one  as  possible. 

After  the  straight  line  movement,  circular  and  elliptical  move- 
ments should  be  practised  in  the  same  way.  These  exercises 
should  be  repeated  by  the  students  whenever  they  have  a  moment 
not  occupied,  until  they  can  sweep  in  an  approximate  ellipse,  or  cir- 
cle, or  draw  a  straight  line  with  one  light,  quick  stroke  of  the  arm. 

The  pencil  should  be  long,  of  medium  grade,  and  should  be  held 
by  the  thumb  and  first  two  fingers,  with  its  unsharpened  end  directed 
toward  the  palm  of  the  hand.  \%  should  be  held  in  this  way  for  all 
the  first  work  upon  any  drawing,  but  in  finishing  or  accenting  a 
drawing  whose  lines  have  been  thus  sketched,  more  pressure  will  be 
required,  and  the  pencil  may  be  held  nearer  the  point. 

If  the  drawing  is  made  upon  a  sheet  of  paper,  it  should  be 
secured  to  the  board  by  tacks,  so  that  its  edges  are  parallel  to  those 
of  the  board ;  if  the  edges  are  not  quite  straight,  a  horizontal  line 
may  be  drawn  near  the  lower  edge,  so  that  directions  may  be  referred 
to  this  line. 


4  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

If  the  drawing  is  made  in  a  book,  the  directions,  vertical  and 
horizontal,  will  be  obtained  by  comparison  with  the  edges  of  the 
book. 


DRAWING   FROM    SINGLE   OBJECTS. 

We  will  suppose  that  the  subject  of  our  lesson  is  the  box,  Fig.  i. 


First,  nearly 
close  the  eyes  and 
try  to  see  the  box 
not  as  a  solid,  but 
as  a  silhouette. 
The  pupils  will  un- 
derstand what  is 
desired  if  an  object 
is  held  in  front  of 
a  window,  for  they 
will  then  see  the 
object  as  a  mass  of 
dark,  whose  out- 
lines are  very  dis- 
tinct, while  the  lines  within  the  contour  are  almost,  if  not  quite, 
invisible.  Practice  will  enable  one  to  look  at  all  objects  so  as  to 
think  simply  of  the  directions  of  their  outer  lines. 

To  realize  the  directions  which  the   important  lines  appear  to 
have,  the  pencil  point  may  be  moved  back  and  forth  in  the  air  so 


Fig.  3. 


OUTLINE   DRAWING.  5 

that  it  appears  to  cover  the  edges.  In  other  words,  the  lines  may  be 
drawn  in  the  air.  While  doing  this  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
the  pencil  point  where  it  would  be  if  it  were  held  upon  a  pane  of 
glass  placed  in  front  of  the  pupil,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  direction 
in  which  the  object  is  seen,  and  not  to  move  the  pencil  away  from 
the  eyes,  that  is,  in  the  actual  direction  of  the  edges.  This  test  is 
the  most  valuable  of  all,  because  it  is  the  simplest  and  easiest  to 
apply.  It  is  really  the  same  as  the  use  of  the  thread,  explained  on 
page  47,  and  nearly  all  other  means  of  testing  will  at  last  be  dis- 
carded in  favor  of  this  first  and  simplest. 

After  careful  study  of  the  mass,  its  outline  may  be  lightly 
sketched,  no  measurements  of  proportion  having  been  made.  The 
aim  is  to  train  the  eye  to  see  correctly.  In  order  to  do  this,  the 
student  must  depend  upon  his  eye,  and  put  down  its  first  impression, 
rather  than  the  results  of  mechanical  tests  of  proportions.  He  must 
first  draw,  and  then  test  by  measuring. 

The  suggesting  of  the  mass  of  the  drawing  by  light,  quick  lines, 
serves  to  place  the  drawing  to  the  best  advantage  on  the  paper,  and 
to  introduce  the  draughtsman 
to  the  problem  before  him  and 
to  the  means  by  which  it  is  to 
be  worked  out.  These  lines 
are  called  blocking-in  lines,  and 
from  such  illustrations  as 
Fig.  4,  which  is  suggested  by 
the  cuts  of  a  book  on  drawing, 
pupils    are   often   led  to  think 

that  a  great    deal    of    time    must  ^^°-  4-     Unsatisfactory  Blocking-in  Lines.      - 

be  spent  on  the  lines,  that  they  must  be  nicely  drawn,  and  that  every 
little  indentation  or  change  of  form  in  the  outline  of  the  mass  must 
be  carefully  given.  Such  ideas  are  productive  of  much  harm.  These 
lines  should  be  put  in  lightly  and  freely,  and  should  do  no  more  than 
give  the  proportions  of  the  drawing  and  its  position  upon  the  paper. 
When  the  outline  of  the  mass  has  been  suggested,  the  inner  lines 
may  be  indicated,  and  the  result  carefully  studied  to  see  that  it 
agrees  with  the  appearance.  When  no  more  can  be  done  by  eye 
alone,  the  drawing  may  be  tested  by  measuring  the  proportions  as 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Fig.  5.    The  explanation  of  Fig.  4. 


explained  in  Chapter  V.  If  the  sketch  does  not  agree  with  these  tests, 
it  must  be  changed.  All  changes  should  be  made,  not  by  erasing, 
but  by  drawing  new  lines,  and  the  drawing  should  be  carried  on  in 

this  way,  until  the  cor- 
B/^TlJfe^'^ff*         1\  rect  lines  are  obtained. 

The  first  lines  must 
be  very  light.  As 
changes  are  made,  the 
strength  may  be  in- 
creased to  distinguish 
them,  until  the  correct 
line  is  secured.  The 
drawing  having  been 
changed  to  agree  with 
the  measurements  of  the  whole  height  and  width,  and  tested  by  moving 
the  pencil  point  to  cover  the  edges,  it  will  be  well  to  test  it  by  means 
of  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  taken  through  the  different  angles 
of  the  box.  Thus,  drop  the  pencil  point  vertically  from  point  i,  and 
see  where  it  cuts  the  lower  edge ;  carry  the  point  horizontally  from 
point  2,  and  note  its  intersection  with  the  front  edge.  The  pencil 
may  now  be  made  to  continue  the  apparent  directions  of  the  edges 
A,  B^  C,  etc.,  until  the  points  where  the  continued  lines  appear 
to  intersect  the  opposite  outlines  are  noted.  Such  tests  may  also 
be  applied  by  the  pencil  used  as  a  straight  edge,  held  horizontally, 
vertically,  and  to  appear  to  coincide  with  the  lines.  These  tests 
should  be  depended  upon,  and  if  carefully  made,  will  produce  a 
drawing  which  is  practically  correct.  The  first  measurements  of 
height  and  width  should  be  very  carefully  taken.  Distances  which 
are  nearly  equal,  as  EF  and  FG,  may  also  be  compared ;  but  as  a 
rule,  few  measurements  of  proportion  should  be  made,  as  short 
distances,  or  short  with  long  distances,  cannot  be  compared  with 
sufficient  accuracy  to  be  of  any  value. 

Instead  of  the  pencil  the  thread  may  be  used  for  testing, 
as  explained  on  page  47.  The  thread  appears  a  fine  line,  whose 
intersections  with  the  edges  may  be  easily  placed,  so  that  until 
the  eye  can  be  depended  upon,  the  thread  is  preferable  to  the 
pencil. 


OUTLINE  DRAWING.  7 

It  is  most  important  that  all  changes  be  made  not  by  erasing,  but 
by  drawing  new  lines.  Erasing  and  keeping  but  one  line  from  first  to 
last  will  generally  produce  a  hard  and  inaccurate  drawing;  and 
although  it  may  finally  be  made  to  agree  with  all  the  tests,  it  will  be 
lacking  in  spirit.  It  is  difficult  at  first  for  most  students  to  draw 
lightly  enough  to  secure  the  correct  lines  without  too  great  heaviness, 
but  it  is  better,  rather  than  to  erase,  to  throw  the  drawing  away  and 
start  anew,  until  the  result  can  be  secured  without  having  lines  so 
black  that  they  cannot  easily  be  erased. 

The  reason  for  working  in  this  way  is  that  we  wish  the  student  to 
depend,  as  far  as  possible,  on  his  eyes.  If  he  erases  and  has  only 
one  line  from  the  start,  unnecessary  time  is  given  to  the  drawing, 
and  he  will  hesitate  to  change  his  lines.  If  light  lines  are  drawn 
and  not  erased,  but  others  drawn  as  soon  as  there  is  doubt  about 
the  first  being  rightly  placed,  the  student  is  much  more  free  to 
change  as  each  suggestion  occurs,  and  toward  the  last  he  has  his 
choice  of  the  various  lines  already  drawn  and  can  experiment  freely. 

This  is  by  far  the  quickest  and  most  accurate  way,  and  prepares 
for  rapid  and  truthful  sketching.  It  is  difficult  ^t  first  for  the 
student  who  has  been  taught  the  mechanical  way  of  drawing  one 
line  at  a  time,  but  he  will  not  have  to  draw  very  long  in  this  way 
before  he  will  be  able  to  produce  truthful  sketches  without  drawing 
many  unnecessary  lines. 

The  student  has  simply  to  study  the  sketches  and  drawings  made 
by  the  old  masters,  and  also  those  by  the  artists  and  illustrators 
of  the  present  day,  to  perceive  that  this  is  the  way  in  which  artists 
draw,  and  to  see  that  with  them,  the  first  light  touches  generally 
remain  and  become  part  of  the  finished  drawing. 

Some  artists  are  able  to  draw  at  first  touch  so  as  to  give  exact 
proportions  to  everything,  but  this  power  is  due  to  long  study  result- 
ing in  thorough  knowledge  and  ability  to  see  correctly.  This  knowl- 
edge is  easiest  and  best  attained  by  the  process  of  considering  the 
subject  as  a  whole,  by  suggesting  all  the  parts  at  once,  and  then  of 
bringing  them  into  their  proper  relations  as  described. 

In  making  an  outline  drawing  pupils  must  erase  all  the  first  lines  ; 
and  if  they  are  not  able  to  obtain  the  correct  lines  without  getting 
the  paper  so  black  that  it  cannot  be  readily  cleaned,  there  is  no 


8  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

reason  why  a  hard  pencil  should  not  be  used  for  the  sketching.  This 
outline  work  is  simply  educational,  and  certainly  at  first  is  not 
artistic.  If  a  hard  pencil  is  used  very  lightly,  its  marks  may  be 
removed  without  smooching,  and  the  lines  may  be  shifted  a  great 
many  times  without  any  injury  to  the  paper.  When  the  pupils 
draw  more  correctly,  they  will  be  able  to  draw  the  first  suggestive 
lines  with  the  soft  pencil,  which  should  be  used  in  accenting  the 
drawings. 

When  the  correct  outline  has  been  found,  it  is  necessary  for  the 
pupils  to  erase  all  unnecessary  lines.  The  easiest  way  to  do  this 
and  still  retain  the  correct  lines  is  to  make  them  stronger  than  the 
others  so  that  they  will  show  faintly  when  the  eraser  has  been  passed 
over  the  paper,  removing  all  but  an  indication  of  the  desired  result. 

The  drawing  may  then  be  accented.  A  soft  pencil  should  be 
used,  held  more  firmly  and  nearer  the  point.  The  lines  should 
be  drawn  of  their  proper  strength  at  one  touch,  and  no  attempt 
should  be  made  to  get  them  absolutely  uniform.  Much  time  is 
often  wasted  in  such  attempts,  and  the  tendency  is  for  too  much 
importance  to  be  put  upon  the  character  of  the  line,  and  too  little 
upon  the  form  expressed  by  the  line.  In  the  first  work  it  is  not 
necessary  to  think  of  the  line,  as  the  objects  are  geometric,  and 
there  is  little  chance  for  artistic  effects.  If  the  lines  are  put  in  at 
one  touch,  they  will  be  much  more  satisfactory  artistically  than  if 
the  students  are  allowed  to  labor  over  them  for  any  effect  whatever. 

Especially  to  be  avoided  is  the  smooth,  even  line  which  has  the 
effect  of  having  been  drawn  with  the  ruler.  These  lines  are  so  in- 
artistic that  we  often  find  labored  attempts  to  avoid  the  mechanical 
effects  due  to  their  use.  The  "  broad  gray  line,"  which  ought  from 
its  name  to  be  much  better  than  the  fine  even  line,  is  often  more 
unsatisfactory,  for  certain  valuable  training  results  from  the  making 
of  fine  regular  lines.  No  knowledge  of  drawing  is  necessary  to 
make  the  "  broad  gray  line  " ;  yet  some  seem  to  think  this  quality  of 
line  the  only  attribute  of  a  good  drawing,  and  so  important  that  it 
must  be  obtained  even  at  the  expense  of  drawing  two  lines  and  care- 
fully filling  in  the  space  between  them. 

The  width  and  character  of  the  lines  are  unimportant  as  long  as 
they  are  freely  drawn  and  express  the  appearance  of  the  object. 


OUTLINE  DRAWING.  9 

When  pupils  are  able  to  draw  correctly,  it  will  be  necessary  only  to 
ask  them  to  work  as  simply  and  directly  as  possible,  and  to  make 
drawings  which  are  strong  and  effective  at  a  distance.  To  do  this, 
they  must  use  a  soft  pencil  when  accenting,  and  accent  at  one  touch. 

If  the  lines  are  put  in  at  one  touch,  they  will  be  slightly  irregular 
and  varied,  and  will  give  a  satisfactory  result ;  for  in  a  free-hand 
drawing  representing  even  the  geometric  solids  that  have  keen,  sharp 
edges,  lines  which  are  ruled,  or  which  are  drawn  free-hand  to  look 
like  ruled  lines,  are  very  unsatisfactory :  they  produce  a  mechanical 
drawing.  An  artistic  drawing  must  have  variety,  and  must  even 
represent  sharp  straight  lines  by  lines  which  are  not  perfectly  smooth 
and  regular.  This  is  according  to  the  way  we  see  these  lines  in 
Nature,  for  the  influence  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is  always  vibrat- 
ing, causes  the  lines  to  appear  not  quite  straight.  Vibration  is  seen 
in  the  glittering  lines  of  the  railway  track,  which  in  summer  through 
the  hot  rays  of  the  noon-day  sun  seem  to  quiver  and  dance  about. 
This  and  similar  effects  will  often  be  seen  by  the  student  of  Nature. 

The  pupil  is  frequently  told  to  finish  his  drawing  in  lines  which 
are  strong  for  the  parts  near  the  eye,  and  lines  which  are  light  for 
the  parts  farther  away.  Such  accenting  is  a  mechanical  application 
of  a  principle  which  is  true  and  necessary  in  good  work,  but  when 
applied  without  judgment  to  any  subject,  it  produces  the  most  hard 
and  mechanical  results,  and  students  should  never  be  allowed  to 
accent  by  this  or  any  other  rule.  To  make  an  outline  drawing  which 
is  artistic  in  its  effect  is  a  very  difficult  problem.  It  cannot  be 
solved  by  the  young  pupil,  and  for  the  first  work  it  is  better  to  use 
lines  of  uniform  strength  and  to  say  nothing  about  accenting,  than  it 
is  to  give  a  rule,  or  to  attempt  what  is  beyond  the  students'  power 
to  see  and  feel. 

When  the  pupils  are  able  to  represent  simple  geometric  forms 
correctly  and  readily,  these  may  be  arranged  in  groups. 

DRAWING   FROM    GROUPS. 

The  student  who  has  not  had  the  best  instruction  will  probably 
attempt  to  draw  the  objects  one  at  a  time,  taking  first  the  prism  A, 
Fig.  6,  next  the  vase  B^  then  the  cylinder  C,  and  last  the  frame  D. 


lO 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


The  objection  to  this  way  of  proceeding  is  that  as  the  objects  are 
drawn  one  at  a  time,  until  the  last  is  completed,  the  proportion  of 
the  whole  group  —  that  is,  its  greatest  height  in  comparison  with  its 
greatest  width  —  cannot  be  seen.  Indeed,  this  is  often  not  even 
considered,  the  student  taking  it  for  granted  that,  since  he  meas- 
ured and  tested  each  object  as  it  was  drawn,  the  single  objects  are 


Fig.  6.     Sketch  when  Ready  to  Erase  and  Accent. 


correct,  and  therefore  the  group.  But  each  object  is  likely  to  be  a 
little  out  of  proportion  ;  indeed,  we  may  say  is  sure  to  be  so.  This 
being  the  case,  the  errors  are  multiplied ;  and  if  the  whole  height 
and  width  are  compared,  the  proportion  is  found  to  be  far  from 
correct. 

The  whole  should  be  presented  before  its  parts,  and  drawing  the 
different  objects  of  the  group  one  at  a  time,  until  finally  the  patch- 
work is  complete,  is  an  uneducational  way  of  proceeding.  Practically 
it  is  also  most  unsatisfactory,  as  with  each  object  the  difficulties 
increase,  and  at  last  it  becomes  impossible  to  place  the  drawings 


OUTLINE   DRAWING.  II 

where  they  belong.     The  only  logical  way  is  to  draw  the   group 
all  at  once,  first  considering  it  as  a  mass  and  blocking  in  its  pro- 
portions by  lines  passing  from  the  principal  points,  as  in  Fig.  7. 
When  these  lines  have  been  drawn 
and  considered,  they  may  be  tested 
by  measuring  the  whole  height  and 
width,  and  the  directions  tested  by 
use  of   the  thread   or   pencil ;   but 
these  lines  must  not  follow  at  all 
closely   the    short    lines    upon    the 
contour  of  the  group.     Their  only 
legitimate  purpose  is  to  place  the 
drawing   properly  upon   the  paper, 
and  to  give  the  extreme  points  of  Fig.  7.   Biocking-in  Lines, 

the  drawing. 

A  good  plan  is,  as  soon  as  the  proportions  have  been  thus  deter- 
mined, to  draw  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  to  indicate  the  upper, 
lower,  right  and  left  points  of  the  drawing,  and  to  be  careful  that  the 
drawing  is  kept  within  these  lines.  The  proportions  of  the  whole 
group  being  thus  determined  as  nearly  as  measurements  can  deter- 
mine, the  objects  may  now  be  sketched  by  eye,  the  most  important 
lines  being  drawn  first.  These  are  the  lines  whose  positions  and 
directions  are  most  easily  seen.  They  are  the  longest  lines,  lines 
of  one  object  which  are  nearly  continuations  of  those  of  some 
other  object,  and  lines  which  are  brought  out  distinctly  by 
shadow.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  way  the  drawings  of  the  differ- 
ent objects  are  proceeding  at  the  same  time,  and,  the  shorter 
and  less  prominent  lines  being  drawn  last,  the  group  may  be 
said  to  be  drawn  all  at  once,  or  as  if  it  were  a  single  object 
having  many  parts. 

While  drawing,  the  student  must  think  of  the  tests  applied  by  the 
thread,  of  horizontal  and  vertical  lines,  and  of  continued  lines ;  and 
drawing  in  the  air,  by  moving  the  pencil  point  to  hide  the  edges  to  be 
represented,  will  also  help  greatly.  The  object  should  be  studied  in 
this  way  and  changed  as  often  as  found  incorrect,  until  the  eye  can 
do  no  more.  It  is  now  time  to  apply  systematically  the  tests  ex- 
plained by  the  drawings  of  the  box.  Fig.  i. 


12  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

The  first  test  is  to  compare  the  height  and  width  of  each  object 
of  the  group,  and  also  to  compare  these  dimensions  with  those  of  the 
whole  group.  This  test  is  the  most  important  and  should  be  very 
carefully  taken.  Slight  inaccuracy  can  hardly  be  avoided,  but  the 
longest  measurements  can  be  compared  more  accurately  than  any 
others,  especially  in  the  case  of  those  which  are  nearly  equal,  and 
the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to  make  the  drawing  agree  with  these 
measurements.  By  this  time  the  student  should  be  able  to  measure 
as  accurately  as  drawings  of  this  nature  require. 

These  tests  will  generally  change  the  drawing  throughout.  The 
changes  should  be  made,  not  by  erasing,  but  by  adding  lines, 
until  without  other  measurements  the  eye  can  see  no  more  to  be 
done.  The  thread  may  then  be  used,  first  for  the  tests  of  horizontal 
and  vertical  lines,  second  for  the  continuing  of  all  the  edges,  and 
third  for  covering  points  in  the  group  opposite  one  another,  that  the 
intersections  of  these  lines  with  the  edges  may  be  noted.  The 
thread  used  thus  will  discover  every  discrepancy  except  the  slight  de- 
viations which  only  the  accurate  eye  can  detect.  The  training  which 
is  given  by  making  drawings  entirely  by  eye  and  then  applying  tests 
will  soon  produce  power  to  draw  correctly  without  the  use  of  tests. 

When  the  correct  lines  have  been  found,  the  others  are  to  be 
erased,  as  explained  on  page  8,  and  the  drawing  is  to  be  accented. 
But  now  the  student  will  do  well  to  think  of  effect,  and  to  see  if 
more  interest  and  expression  cannot  be  given  to  the  drawing  than  is 
given  by  uniform  lines.  The  student  has  perhaps  been  taught  that 
the  nearest  objects  are  seen  most  strongly,  and  that  the  strength 
diminishes  with  the  distance.  This  of  course  is  true  in  a  general 
way.  It  is  the  effect  of  aerial  perspective,  or  the  changing  of  color 
by  intervening  atmosphere.  Thus,  of  a  row  of  light  objects  the 
nearest  will  appear  the  lightest  and  brightest,  and  of  a  number  of 
dark  objects  the  nearest  will  appear  the  darkest.  The  light  object 
in  the  distance  appears  darker,^  and  the  dark  one  lighter,  and  in  a 
sketch  representing  considerable  distance  this  principle  will  be  of 
assistance  ;  but  it  must  be  stated  so  as  not  to  convey  the  idea  that 
there  can  be  nothing  in  the  distance  as  strong  or  stronger  than  the 
unimportant  features  of  the  foreground,  for  we  do  not  see  objects 

1  Very  light  objects  may  change  but  little. 


OUTLINE  DRAWING. 


13 


more  or  less  distinctly  according  to  their  distance,  —  in  fact,  distance 
has  practically  nothing  to  do  with  it.  We  distinguish  objects  as  masses 
of  color,  lighter  or  darker  than  the  colors  against  which  they  are 
seen.  This  being  so,  it  is  evident  that  a  light  object  in  the  back- 
ground, as  a  white  house  seen  against  dark  foliage,  must  be  much 
more  prominent  than  a  near  object,  seen  against  another  of  the 
same  color. 

In  general,  when  there  is  little  or  no  contrast  of  color,  objects 
are  difficult  to  see  without  regard  to  their  distance.  Place  a  square 
of  white  cardboard  in  front  of  a  larger  square  of  the  same,  the  latter 
coming  in  front  of  the  blackboard.  The  smaller  can  be  seen  very 
faintly.  In  comparison  with  the  distinctness  with  which  the  larger 
is  seen  against  the  blackboard,  the  smaller  is  practically  invisible. 
This  experiment  proves  that  we  distinguish  objects  through  contrasts 
of  color,  and  we  have  to  consider  what  can  be  done  in  mere  outline 
to  render  the  effect  of  Nature.  Can  no  more  be  done  than  to  repre- 
sent the  form  by  lines  of  uniform  strength  ? 

The  opinion  seems  to  be  general  that  more  can  be  done.  We 
find  that  instruction  is  often  given  to  represent  the  nearer  edges  by 
strong  lines,  the  farther  ones  by  light  lines ;  in  fact,  to  proportion 
the  strength  of  the  line  to  the  distance  of  the  part  it  represents. 
Apply  this  rule  to  the  representation  of  the  two  pieces  of  cardboard, 
and  the  nearer  is  accented  by  heavy  lines,  the  farther  by  light  lines. 
This  is  a  direct  contradiction  of  what  we  see,  for  the  outline  of  the 
nearer  is  barely  visible,  while  the  farther  is  distinct  against  the 
blackboard. 

In  color  we  certainly  should  not  think  of  representing  the  nearer 
as  darker  than  the  farther,  or  in  any  other  way  than  as  it  appears, 
and  the  same  is  true  of  light  and  shade.  Why  should  we  not  do  the 
same  7vhen  possible,  with  outline  ?  No  reason  to  the  contrary  can  be 
given,  for  the  difference  in  clearness  with  which  the  various  lines  are 
seen  is  the  result,  not  of  distance,  but  of  contrasts  of  color,  and  light 
and  shade.  Of  course  we  shall  expect  to  find  the  strongest  lines 
among  the  nearest  ones,  but  farther  than  this  we  cannot  go,  and  if 
we  adopt  any  conventional  accenting,  we  are  working  by  rule  and 
not  by  observation,  and  the  result  will  be  the  production  of  hard, 
mechanical  drawings. 


H 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


Character  appears  in  outlines.  An  object,  as  a  cast,  having  a 
smooth,  hard  surface,  shows  these  qualities  in  its  outlines,  which  will 
be  represented  by  relatively  smooth  lines.  A  cube  with  smooth 
faces  has  sharp,  straight  edges,  which  will  be  represented  by 
straight  lines.  A  box  made  of  rough  boards  has  broken  edges, 
whose  character  may  be  given  by  drawing  the  irregular  outline 
in  which  one  surface  breaks  into  the  other.  A  drawing  from 
the  figure  can  express  the  variations  in  the  appearance  of  the 
outline,  parts  of  which  are  sharp,  other  parts  blurred  by  light  or 
a  growth  of  hair. 

Light  affects  the  appearance  of  the  outlines  strongly,  in  some 
places  making  them  distinct,  in  other  places  indistinct.  An  even 
line  for  everything  disregards  all  these  variations  of  effect ;  so  also 
does  any  conventional  variation  of  strength.  If  the  student  is 
allowed  to  disregard  effects  in  outline  work,  he  will  have  great  diffi- 
culty in  seeing  them  in  later  work.  There  is  no  more  labor  involved 
in  representing  effects  than  in  disregarding  them,  for  one  line  is  as 
easy  to  make  as  another,  observation  only  being  required.  The  student 
who  can  see.,  can  in  time  represent  what  he  sees,  and  as  long  as  any 
differences  can  be  found  between  his  drawing  and  Nature,  he  can 
learn  to  correct  the  errors. 

The  conventional  accenting  taught  in  many  public  schools  pro- 
duces the  most  mechanical,  hard,  and  unnatural  sketches  when  the 
student  works  from  Nature,  indoors  or  out.  Undirected  he  would 
never  produce  such  childish  and  ridiculous  effects,  but  after  instruc- 
tion in  drawing,  which  has  specified  that  lines  must  be  represented 
with  a  degree  of  strength  corresponding  to  their  distance,  he  natu- 
rally does  not  think  of  observing  and  drawing  what  he  sees,  but  sim- 
ply mechanically  grades  the  strength  of  line  as  he  has  been  taught. 
He  makes  the  heaviest  lines  of  the  drawing  where  there  should  be 
the  faintest  indications  of  lines,  and  often  where  no  lines  at  all  would 
be  better  than  faint  ones. 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  get  a  pupil  from  most  public  schools  to 
make  sketches  in  which  the  unimportant  detail,  which  is  no  part  of 
the  effect,  is  not  brought  out  with  heavy  black  lines.  This  is  not 
surprising,  for  he  sees  this  detail  and  it  is  near  him,  therefore, 
according  to  his  instruction,  it  must  be  strongly  accented. 


OUTLINE  DRAWING. 


15 


In  outline,  as  in  other  mediums,  we  should  do  the  best  we  can  to 
express  what  is  before  us.  The  effect  of  the  subject  should  be  con- 
sidered as  well  as  its  form.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  student 
should  not  be  taught  to  observe  the  effect,  and  if  once  started  rightly 
he  will  advance  rapidly  and  will  make  drawings  which,  since  they 
are  representations  of  Nature,  will  have  variety  of  effect,  will  be  true 
and  artistic.  No  rule  for  accenting  can  be  given  other  than  to  study 
and  represent  what  is  seen,  as  far  as  possible,  as  it  appears. 

In  outline,  without  any  light  and  shade,  it  is  impossible  always  to 
accent  the  lines  just  as  they  appear.     For  instance,  some  edges  of 


Fig.  8.     Incorrectly  Accented. 


Fig.  9.     Correctly  Accented. 


the  object  may  be  so  lost  in  the  shadow  as  to  be  wholly  invisible, 
but  without  them  the  drawing  might  be  incomplete  and  unsatisfac- 
tory. A  correct  impression  of  the  facts  must  be  conveyed^  and  no  impor- 
tant line  of  a  visible  surface  can  be  omitted  even  if  not  seen.  Thus, 
in  a  brick  or  other  building,  when  the  light  comes  from  directly  be- 
hind the  spectator,  and  the  walls  of  the  building  are  foreshortened 
equally,  the  front  edge  of  the  building  will  be  invisible,  unless  it  is 
brought  out  by  different  material  or  color.  In  an  outline  sketch  of 
the  building  it  would  be  necessary  to  represent  this  invisible  edge, 
and  it  might  be  necessary  to  represent  it  by  a  very  strong  line,  since 
the  edge  is  the  nearest  line  of  the  building.    Thus  the  judgment  and 


I  6  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

good  sense  of  the  draughtsman  must  decide  what  will  give  the  best 
impression  of  the  facts  that  the  medium  is  capable  of  rendering. 

In  drawings  of  the  geometric  solids,  where  there  are  few  lines, 
it  will  often  be  impossible  to  accent  the  lines  as  they  appear ;  for 
some  of  the  most  important  ones  may  be  invisible,  or  seen  so  faintly 
that  to  represent  them  as  they  appear  would  make  the  drawing  give 
a  false  impression.  Frequently  when  the  objects  are  strongly  lighted 
and  arranged  as  in  Fig.  8,  their  outlines  on  the  light  side  of  the 
group  intersect  one  another,  so  that  the  outline  of  the  mass  is  com- 
posed of  parts  of  those  of  several  objects.  This  outline  is  very 
prominent,  while  the  edges  inside  the  outline  are  almost  lost  in  the 
mass  of  light.  It  is  evident  that  in  this  case  we  cannot  accent  as  we 
see.  We  must  accent  as  we  feel  the  group,  and  when  accenting  the 
lines  as  they  are  seen  is  unsatisfactory,  we  must  use  our  judgment 
and  make  the  accenting  express  the  facts.  In  Fig.  8,  for  instance,  we 
must  show  that  the  prism  A  is  in  front  of  the  cube  B^  and  that  the 
cone  C  is  a  solid  and  comes  in  front  of  the  back  faces  of  the  cube. 

When  drawing  from  furniture  or  from  any  subject  having  many 
lines,  the  effect  will  often  be  satisfactory  when  the  lines  are  accented 
as  they  are  seen.  Here  there  are  so  many  lines  and  so  many  changes 
in  direction  that  the  parts  which  are  not  seen  may  not  be  missed, 
and  the  student  can  represent  more  nearly  what  he  sees.  But  it 
must  be  understood  that  it  is  wholly  a  matter  of  feeling  for  which 
no  rule  can  be  given,  and  often,  in  such  a  case  as  that  illustrated  in 
Fig.  lo,  if  the  lines  are  accented  as  they  appear,  a  very  false  idea  of 
the  facts  will  be  conveyed,  and  instead  of  outlining  the  forms  of 
the  different  parts  going  to  make  up  the  object,  the  outlines  of  the 
different  spaces  or  bits  of  background  seen  between  the  various 
parts  of  the  object  will  be  given. 

In  drawings  these  spaces  should  be  considered,  and  their  proportions 
will  help  to  prove  the  work ;  but  in  accenting  they  are  unimportant. 
It  is  important  to  give  the  form  and  position  of  the  different  pieces 
forming  the  object,  and  this  must  be  done  by  the  accenting  in  heavy 
lines  of  the  important  features.  In  such  accenting,  the  student  must 
remember  that  the  heaviest  accent  or  line  will  strike  the  eye  first, 
and  should  thus  be  given  to  the  nearest  and  most  important  parts, 
as  in  Fig.  ii. 


OUTLINE  DRAWING. 


17 


At  first  most  students  will  have  difficulty  in  seeing  any  difference 
in  the  way  in  which  the  various  edges  appear.  This  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  but  a  single  point  can  be  seen  clearly  at  any  one  time. 
The  eye  glances  rapidly  over  the  whole  of  an  object,  observing  all 
its  parts.  We  are  unconscious  of  this  motion.  All  parts  of  the 
object  are  seen  distinctly,  and  the  variety  of  eifect  is  not  realized. 
All  the  parts  will  continue  to  give  the  impression  of  equal  strength 
until  the  ability  to  see  the  whole  of  an  object  at  once  has  been 
acquired.  The  student  must  practise  until  he  can  thus  see  before 
he  thinks  of  success  in  any 
medium,  for  all  demand  equally 
a  study  of  the  comparative 
strength  of  detail. 

It  is  almost  impossible  for 
students  to  realize  effects  and 
masses.  The  best  assistance  in 
this  direction  is  given  by  the 
use  of  an  ordinary  magnifying 
glass  of  about  12"  or  15"  focus. 
If  the  pupil  hold  this  as  far 
from  him  as  he  can  and  still  see 
in  it  the  blurred  forms  of  the 
group  he  is  studying,  he  will  see, 
if  his  eyes  are  focussed  on  the 
glass  and  not  on  the  group,  the 
masses  of  light  and  dark  and 
color  which  form  the  effect,  and 
which  he  must  represent  if  his 
drawing  is  to  be  true.  This  glass  is  called  a  blur-glass,  because  it 
blurs  away  the  detail  which  the  pupil  exaggerates  so  much  as  to 
spoil  his  drawing.  If  this  glass  is  used  in  light  and  shade  and  in 
color  work,  it  will  prove  the  best  teacher  the  pupil  can  have.  In 
outline  work,  it  will  enable  pupils  to  see  the  difference  in  the  effect 
of  the  different  lines.  After  using  this  glass  for  a  short  time,  the 
pupils  will  learn  to  see  the  whole  of  the  group  at  once  by  looking  at 
it  with  the  eyes  out  of  focus,  and  they  will  not  require  the  blur-glass 
to  realize  the  effects  they  ought  to  represent. 


Incorrectly  Accented. 


i8 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


It  is  not  possible  to  see  simply,  to  realize  effects  and  masses,  with- 
out the  blurred  vision,  which  gives  an  impression  of  the  whole  subject 


at  once.  No  injury  to  the  eyes  results  from  proper  blurring  of  vision 
by  a  blur-glass,  but  if  pupils  try  to  look  through  it  instead  of  at  it, 
they  injure  the  sight  and  fail  to  see  the  masses. 


OUTLINE   DRAWING.  1 9 

Although  no  rule  for  accenting  can  be  given,  the  effect  is  found 
to  conform  to  the  principle  that  any  detail  which  comes  in  either  the 
mass  of  the  light  or  that  of  the  shadow  is  unimportant.  Thus  an  edge 
defining  a  light  surface  against  another  surface  also  light  is  not 
prominent,  and  an  edge  separating  a  surface  in  the  shadow  from 
another  shade  surface  is  seen  faintly.  The  important  features  are 
those  which  come  between  the  light  and  the  shadow.  But  from 
what  has  been  said  it  will  be  realized  that  an  outline  drawing  is 
most  conventional,  and  that  the  representation  of  what  is  really  seen 
of  outline  will  often  be  most  unsatisfactory.  The  contour  of  an 
object  is  absolute,  and  an  outline  will  give  what  the  eye  sees ;  but 
to  express  in  outline  artistically  the  pupil  must  learn  to  feel,  and  this 
cannot  be  expected  at  first.  All  that  one  can  say  to  the  student  is 
observe  the  object,  and  do  what  is  seen  when  this  does  not  con- 
tradict the  facts. 

The  following  suggestions  may  aid  pupils  to  accent  satisfactorily : 

1.  The  difference  in  distance  of  the  different  objects  or  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  same  object,  should  be  expressed  by  varied 
accenting,  in  which  the  strong  lines  represent  important  lines  of 
the  subject. 

2.  The  strongest  accents  should  represent  the  nearest  important 
lines  of  the  subject. 

3.  The  lines  of  the  background  or  any  unimportant  detail  should 
be  represented  by  light  lines. 

4.  The  forms  of  the  different  objects  and  their  different  parts, 
instead  of  those  of  the  background  seen  behind  the  objects  or 
between  its  different  parts,  must  be  brought  out  by  the  accenting. 

The  student  will  often,  of  his  own  accord,  break  away  from  out- 
line pure  and  simple,  and  introduce  light  and  shade  features. 
This  should  be  allowed  and  recommended  in  the  public  schools  as 
soon  as  the  pupils  are  able  to  make  fairly  correct  outline  drawings, 
and  to  see  the  shadows  which  may  serve  as  accents.  In  the  drawing 
of  the  geometric  objects,  unless  the  entire  light  and  shade  effects 
are  given,  it  will  not  be  easy  to  improve  the  drawing  in  this  way ;  but 
in  the  study  of  common  objects,  or  flowers  and  foliage,  and  of  furni- 
ture, there  will  be  many  small  cast  shadows  which  can  be  seen  and 
represented  by  the  pupils.     Even  in  an  outline  drawing  these  cast 


20  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

shadows  can  be  expressed  by  a  thickening  of  the  line,  and  the  earlier 
the  students  represent  all  important  features  that  they  can  see,  the 
easier  it  will  be  for  them  to  make  artistic  drawings.  The  drawings 
of  the  shoe  and  stool  illustrate  work  of  this  nature,  which  is  princi- 
pally outline,  and  in  which  the  cast  shadows  are  given  or  suggested, 
and  serve  as  accents. 

The  next  step  after  the  addition  of  small  cast  shadows  is  the  ren- 
dering of  the  masses  of  light  and  dark  :  this  introduces  "  Light  and 
Shade,"  the  subject  of  another  book. 


From  the  National  Drawing  Books. 


From  the  National  Drawing  Books. 


CHAPTER   11. 
OBJECTS   FOR   STUDY. 

We  hear  a  great  deal  now  about  the  cultivation  of  the  sense  of 
beauty  by  the  choice  of  drawing  models.  Many  go  so  far  as  to  say 
that  nothing  but  the  most  beautiful  forms  should  be  given  from  the 
start,  and,  asserting  that  the  cube,  cylinder,  and  other  type  forms  are 
not  beautiful,  they  say  that  they  should  not  be  used,  but  that  beauti- 
ful variations  of  these  type  forms  should  be  provided.  More  definite 
information  than  this  is  rarely  given.  We  are  not  told  what  natural 
objects  are  beautiful,  and  cheap  enough  to  be  provided,  or  how  these 
objects  of  beauty  are  to  be  obtained,  if  they  are  not  provided  by 
the  city.  Such  advice  as  to  the  use  of  beautiful  models  must  be 
very  pleasant  and  valuable  to  the  drawing  teacher,  who  so  often 
fails  to  secure  the  money  necessary  to  provide  the  cheap  wooden 
models  costing  a  few  cents  each  ;  and  we  do  not  wonder  that  special 
and  regular  teachers  often  regard  this  subject  as  one  having  no 
standards  and  no  authorities. 

Much  of  all  this  commotion  about  beautiful  objects  of  study  is 
raised  by  those  who,  suffering  from  criticism,  have  in  the  desire  to 
escape  it  plunged  headlong  from  one  set  of  mechanical  rules  for  a 
series  of  lessons  for  the  public  schools,  to  another  set  less  arbitrary 
in  certain  directions,  but  still  mechanical,  and  if  possible,  more 
harmful  than  before,  because  attempting  more. 

The  average  teacher  can  readily  learn  to  discover  at  a  glance 
whether  or  not  the  drawing  of  a)  cube  represents  the  object  as  it 
might  appear.  She  can  do  this  even  without  seeing  the  model  from 
the  pupil's  position ;  and  the  student  can  compare  his  drawing  with 
the  object  and  discover  its  errors  more  easily  than  he  can  in  the 
drawing  of  a  cast,  a  leaf,  a  figure,  or  any  other  object  of  beauty,  in 
which  the  beauty  depends  upon  lines  which  are  subtile  and  which 
require  a  trained  eye  to  see  at  all  truly. 

It  is  absurd  to  think  that  a  pupil  will  profit  by  taking  for  his  first 
lessons  the  most  difficult  problems.     He  may  be  satisfied,  and  gener- 


22  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

ally  is  better  satisfied,  to  make  drawings  which  are  childish  attempts 
at  work  beyond  his  perception,  than  to  begin  the  severe  study  of  the 
elements  of  his  art ;  but  if  he  is  serious  and  begins  by  attempting  to 
produce  pictures,  he  will  always  come  at  last  to  the  study  of  the 
alphabet,  namely,  form  and  values.  I  have  yet  to  know  an  artist  of 
reputation  who  does  not  say  that  corrections  of  errors  in  drawing 
and  in  light  and  shade,  or  color  effects,  are  the  most  important  work 
of  the  teacher  :  in  fact,  are  the  greater  part  of  what  the  teacher  can 
do  for  the  pupil. 

Any  drawing  which  does  not  help  the  student  to  make  a  better 
one  has  not  properly  educated  him.  To  be  helpful,  the  drawing  must 
be  criticised,  and  any  teacher  who  gives  her  students  work  which 
she  cannot  criticise,  must  retard  their  progress.  If  public  school 
teachers  were  generally  able  to  criticise  figure  drawing  and  drawings 
from  the  most  refined  and  beautiful  forms,  supposing  that  these 
forms  could  be  provided  and  were  best  for  the  pupils  to  study,  they 
would  be  unable  to  give  their  classes  instruction  in  drawing  for  lack 
of  time.  When  forty  pupils  are  to  be  instructed  in  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes,  each  can  have  but  an  instant  of  individual  atten- 
tion ;  and  with  objects  of  the  nature  of  those  recommended,  the  most 
skilful  artist  would  not  be  able  to  criticise  the  work  of  one  quarter 
of  the  class. 

But  these  objects  are  not  only  impossible  to  obtain  and  difficult 
to  work  from,  but  they  are  really  not  as  desirable,  educationally,  as 
the  now  despised  cube,  cylinder,  etc.  The  best  education  is  due  to 
individual  effort :  particularly  in  drawing  is  this  true.  The  stu- 
dent can  criticise  the  errors  in  the  drawing  of  the  cube,  and  thus  can 
help  himself.  The  teacher  can  carry  the  criticism  farther,  and  at  a 
glance  can  say  whether  the  drawing  is  correct ;  for  there  is  but  one 
possible  appearance  of  a  cube  at  a  given  distance,  level,  and  angle. 
There  is  but  one  cube  —  that  is,  but  one  type  form.  Of  potatoes  and 
other  similar  forms  there  is  no  type,  every  object  is  individual,  and 
therefore  every  consideration  proves  the  cube  and  other  geometric 
objects  the  best  material  for  study.  All  of  any  experience  know  that 
those  who  can  draw  these  objects  and  their  variations  easily  and  ac- 
curately, can  draw  almost  anything.  The  students  who  begin  by 
studying  objects  whose  drawings  they  cannot  criticise,  and  which,  as 


OBJECTS  FOR   STUDY.  23 

has  been  shown,  cannot  be  criticised  for  them,  are  not  likely  to  pro- 
gress far  or  well ;  and  though  study  from  natural  or  artistic  varia- 
tions of  the  solids  is  interesting  and  valuable,  this  should  not  come 
first  nor  be  given  exclusively  until  the  more  severe  forms  can  be 
drawn  easily  and  correctly.  Not  only  for  young  pupils,  but  for  all 
beginning  the  study  of  drawing,  are  the  geometric  forms  the  best  ob- 
jects of  instruction.  Properly  studied,  more  ability  in  drawing  will 
be  gained  from  them  in  a  given  time  than  from  any  other  material. 
The  student  who  has  drawn  from  life,  even  for  many  years,  will  find 
the  drawing  of  geometric  forms  not  only  interesting,  but  valuable, 
because  they  will  often  prove  to  him  that  they  are  difficult  to  draw 
and  that  he  cannot  draw  them  well  or  easily.  The  student  who  can 
draw  one  thing  well  ought  to  be  able  to  draw  another ;  but  many 
draw  from  memory  as  much  or  even  more  than  from  the  object,  and 
those  who  have  not  studied  these  forms  are  without  the  training 
which  is  most  valuable  for  all  work  in  which  perspective  is  involved. 

Groups  including  the  double  cross  and  the  various  frames  are 
very  difficult  to  draw,  for  they  present  many  problems  in  foreshorten- 
ing and  the  slightest  error  in  drawing  is  very  noticeable.  For 
these  reasons,  all  public  school  instruction  should  be  based  upon  the 
geometric  type  forms.  It  may  be  said  that  to  make  the  children  in- 
terested in  the  subject  of  drawing,  interesting  subjects  must  be  given 
them,  and  that  in  the  continued  drawing  of  the  severe  type  forms  they 
will  lose  their  interest.  Under  the  usual  conditions,  in  which  it  is 
necessary  for  pupils  to  depend  wholly  upon  the  teachers  for  the  cor- 
rection of  their  work,  students  may  not  be  interested  in  geometric 
subjects ;  but  if  they  are  enabled  to  correct  their  own  drawings, 
they  will  find  these  subjects  interesting,  for  they  will  see  the  value 
derived  from  each  lesson.  ^ 

In  the  first  work  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  pupils  draw  from 
models  placed  upon  their  own  desks  than  from  objects  farther  away, 
for  the  reason  that  there  is  more  perspective  effect  and  the  drawings 
are  easier  to  criticise.  When  small  models  are  placed  at  the  back  of 
each  desk,  the  pictorial  effect  is  not  pleasant,  as  there  is  too  violent 
perspective  ;  but  this  effect  may  be  avoided  by  placing  the  models 
upon  the  model  support,  books,  or  some  other  object  which  will 
raise  them  a  few  inches  from  the  desk.     This  first  work,  hdwever, 


24 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


cannot  be  pictorially  pleasing  or  artistic.  It  must  be  educational, 
and  considered  in  this  light  the  position  of  the  models  on  the  desk 
is  the  best  that  can  be  found  for  the  first  work,  since  they  are  near 
the  pupil,  and  he  can  test  his  drawings  very  exactly,  much  more  easily 
and  better  than  he  could  were  the  models  at  a  greater  distance. 
Another  advantage  is  that  the  pupils  are  independent,  and  may 
advance  as  rapidly  as  they  are  able.  Those  who  finish  a  drawing, 
instead  of  waiting  for  those  who  have  not  finished,  can  rearrange  the 
model  and  draw  again.  The  simple  tablets  and  solids  are  thus 
adapted  to  give  the  most  severe  and  valuable  training  to  the  pupils. 
After  study  from  them  for  a  short  time,  they  will  be  able  to  see 
correctly  enough  to  make  good  drawings  from  objects  of  common 
use  and  interest. 

The  best  models  for  the  first  work  in  the  public  schools  consist 
of  cardboard  tablets  which  may  be  connected  by  means  of  metal 
clips,  or  by  rods  fitting  sockets  secured  to  the  tablets.  The  tablets 
are  sold  in  sets,  including  the  common  geometric  forms,  and  by 
combining  them  the  solid  type  forms  may  be  represented  in  whole 
or  in  part.  The  chief  value  of  these  models  over  the  wooden 
models  is  due  to  the  fact  that  by  their  use,  the  edges  of  the  solids 
which  are  invisible  may  be  made  visible,  for  the  tablets  may  be 
combined  to  present  the  appearance  of  the  interior,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  exterior  of  the  solid  forms.  By  connecting  the  bases  of  the 
prism  forms  by  a  rod,  these  forms  are  presented  to  the  pupils  in  the 
simplest  way.  When  thus  arranged  all,  or  nearly  all,  of  the  angles 
of  two  or  more  type  forms,  arranged  in  a  group,  may  be  seen  at  the 
same  time.  These  models  are  thus  much  easier  to  draw  correctly 
than  the  solid  objects. 

The  metal  clips  hold  the  tablets  at  right  angles  to  each  other, 
but  they  may  be  bent  to  give  any  desired  angle,  and  thus  the  tablets 
may  be  combined  to  present  the  type  solids  and  many  common  ob- 
jects of  similar  forms. 

The  tablets  are  light,  noiseless,  durable,  and  so  inexpensive  that 
each  pupil  may  have  a  set.  They  are  the  best  size  for  free-hand 
drawing,  being  two  and  one-half  times  the  size  of  the  models  usually 
intended  for  individual  use.  They  are  large  enough  to  use  for 
tracing  in  design  and  color  work.     In  the  study  of  working  draw- 


OBJECTS  FOR   STUDY.  25 

ings,  they  furnish  each  pupil  an  extended  range  of  subjects  so  that 
copying  is  unnecessary. 

The  slate  can  rarely  be  used  the  first  primary  year  for  the  testing 
of  the  perspective  appearance  of  objects,  as  the  pupils  are  not  old 
enough  to  hold  it  and  compare  the  drawing  with  the  object. 

Before  the  slate  is  used  for  the  testing  of  the  perspective  appear- 
ance of  form,  a  sphere,  cylindrical  pail,  an  apple,  or  other  simple 
large  object,  may  be  truthfully  represented  by  many  pupils  in  the 
first  primary  grade,  if  they  have  not  studied  the  actual  facts  of  solids 
in  the  mechanical  way  which  prevents  conceptions  of  their  appear- 
ances. Even  the  first  year  pupils  should  draw  occasionally  from 
simple  large  objects.  The  drawings  should  be  upon  paper  and 
should  be  large  and  entirely  free-hand.  An  occasional  exercise  of 
this  kind  will  show  the  capacity  for  seeing  which  has  been  gained, 
and  will  prove  the  value  of  study  upon  the  slate  from  the  geometric 
forms. 

In  the  grammar  grades  and  the  high  school,  models  can  be  pro- 
vided by  the  pupils,  who  may  bring  vases,  boxes,  bags,  baskets,  and 
all  kinds  of  articles  which  they  may  wish  to  draw ;  but  these  objects 
should  not  be  drawn  in  the  lower  grades,  except  occasionally  to  test 
the  capacity  of  the  pupils. 

When  rightly  taught,  interest  in  the  subject  of  drawing  will  not 
depend  upon  the  object  of  the  lesson  or  upon  the  making  of  draw- 
ings, which  may  falsely  cause  the  pupils  to  think  that  they  are  really 
doing  something  valuable.  The  greatest  interest  will  be  aroused  by 
the  work  which  causes  each  pupil  to  think  for  himself  all  the  time, 
and  to  discover  for  himself  the  truths  of  Nature.  This  is  necessary 
when  pupils  draw  from  the  geometric  objects,  using  the  slate  to  cor- 
rect their  drawings,  and  to  point  out  the  inaccuracies  of  their 
reasoning;  and  when,  after  a  time,  they  become  able  to  make  a 
drawing  which  does  "  fit "  the  first  time,  they  are  often  unable  to 
restrain  their  enthusiasm,  and  greater  interest  in  the  subject  could 
be  desired  by  no  one. 


&--^ 


L~  —. 


From  the  National  Drawing  Books. 


THE    GLASS  SLATE. 


27 


room.  The  expense  and  nature  of  the  materials  would  prevent 
school  use,  even  if  there  were  no  other  reasons  why  the  system 
should  not  be  used. 

The  difficulty  of  using  brush  and  color  or  ink  in  tracing  upon 
glass,  and  the  clumsiness  of  the  wire  screen  and  chalk,  have  ren- 
dered their  use,  particularly  with  young  pupils,  simply  an  interesting 
experiment. 

To  make  practical  use  of  the  principle,  a  pencil  which  will  draw 
freely  upon  the  glass  must  be  used.  With  such  a  pencil  the  glass 
may  take  the  place  of  paper,  and  the  principle  enables  even  the 
young  child  to  test  his  drawing  quickly  and  surely.  This  pencil 
must  be  one  which  will  draw  a  fine  line  and  be  tough  enough  not  to 
break  easily.  After  long  study  and  experiment,  a  pencil  has  been 
made  which  is  tough  and  durable,  and  which  marks  as  readily  upon 
the  glass  as  upon  paper. 

If,  instead  of  tracing,  the  appearance  of  an  object  is  sketched  by 
eye  upon  the  slate,  the  drawing  may  be  tested,  when  it  is  thought 
correct,  by  holding  the  glass  in  front  of  the  object  and  moving  it 
back  and  forth  until  the  lines  of  the  drawing  appear  to  cover  those 
of  the  object.  If  a  sheet  of  white  paper  is  placed  behind  the  glass, 
the  drawing  will  appear  as  if  on  the  paper,  and  there  is  no  differ- 
ence, so  far  as  its  making  is  concerned,  between  the  use  of  paper 
and  the  transparent  glass  slate.  When  the  drawing  is  completed, 
the  difference  between  the  use  of  the  slate  and  the  paper  appears. 
The  best  teacher  is  often  unable  to  make  the  pupil  see  that  his 
drawing  on  paper  is  incorrect ;  while  the  errors  of  the  drawing  upon 
the  slate  are  shown  when  it  is  held  in  front  of  the  object.  The 
pupil  is  then  his  own  teacher. 

The  slate  should  not  be  used  for  tracing  the  appearance  —  not  that 
Madame  Cave's  system  has  not  accomplished  much  good,  but  that 
when  used  in  this  way,  the  result  is  less  satisfactory  than  when  the 
drawing  is  made  by  eye  alone,  as  upon  a  sheet  of  paper. 

It  is  not  meant  that  tracing  of  beautiful  forms  may  not  help  to 
reaHze  their  beauty,  and  that  work  of  this  nature  once  in  a  while  may 
not  be  profitable,  but  that  object  drawing  should  be  by  eye  alone. 

We  learn  by  experience.  We  may  watch  an  artist  draw  and  paint 
for  a  long  time,  and,  if  we  have  never  tried  to  draw  or  paint,  receive 


28  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

little  benefit.  The  teacher  who  draws  much  for  the  student  is  not 
teaching.     The  student  who  copies  is  not  drawing  in  its  true  sense. 

We  must  depend  upon  the  eye  for  all  good  results.  We  train  the 
eye  when  we  discover  its  mistakes.  If  a  person  does  not  discover 
that  the  circle  seen  obliquely  appears  an  ellipse,  he  will  see  it  a  circle 
all  his  life.  He  will  always  see  the  local  colors  of  objects  unless 
he  sometimes  discovers  that  something  which  he  did  not  recognize, 
appeared  very  different  from  its  actual  color.  The  only  way  to  train 
the  eye  is  to  depend  upon  it,  and  for  this  reason  the  student  should 
always  draw  what  is  before  him  without  measuring  or  testing  in  any 
way.  He  should  draw  upon  the  slate  when  the  flap  is  behind  it,  and 
should  remove  the  flap  to  test  the  drawing  only  when,  after  careful 
observation,  he  thinks  it  is  what  he  sees. 

The  limit  to  the  age  when  this  slate  may  be  used  is  determined 
by  the  ability  of  the  pupil  to  hold  it  for  testing  the  drawing  at  about 
right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  object  is  seen.  Some  very 
young  pupils  will  do  this  readily,  and  some  older  ones  will  have  much 
trouble.  One  of  the  greatest  difflculties  that  I  have  found  during  my 
teaching  in  art  schools  is,  that  students  measure  with  the  pencil 
tipped  away  from  them  ten  or  twenty  degrees  or  more,  and  make 
drawings  to  agree  with  the  incorrect  measurements  thus  resulting, 
even  when  they  can  see  proportions  correctly.  They  apparently 
prefer  to  depend  upon  these  false  tests  rather  than  to  take  the  trouble 
to  use  their  eyes.  Of  course  nothing  can  prevent  or  excuse  careless- 
ness, and  all  that  is  claimed  for  the  slate  is  that  it  may  be  of  great 
assistance  when  rightly  used. 

For  use  outside  the  public  schools,  the  student  may  begin  with  a 
large  sheet  of  paper  or  a  circular  or  square  card  placed  on  the  floor 
or  on  the  table.  He  may  then  take  a  box  or  other  common  object. 
It  will  be  seen  that  the  subject  studied  must  be,  if  small,  quite  near 
the  eye  :  thus  the  student  who  draws  at  home  has  the  advantage 
of  the  student  in  the  classroom,  for  he  has  the  choice  of  all  the  objects 
in  the  room,  and  may  work  with  them  near  or  distant,  according  to 
their  sizes. 

It  will  be  well  always  to  make  the  drawing  on  the  slate  as  large  as 
possible  and  yet  have  it  cover  the  object  when  the  slate  is  held  at 
arm's  length. 


THE    GLASS  SLATE. 


29 


The  slate  should  not  be  used  for  beginners  when  the  models  are  small 
and  at  a  distance. 

Whatever  the  size  of  the  models,  they  should  be  so  near  that 
the  drawing  which  will  cover  them  will  be  not  less  than  about 
two  inches  high.  The  limit  to  size  will  vary  with  the  subject  of  the 
lesson,  but  the  drawing  must  be  large  enough  to  admit  of  comparison. 
If  it  is  impossible  to  place  the  model  near  enough  so  that  the  drawing 
upon  the  slate,  when  made  the  desired  size,  will  appear  to  coincide 
with  the  object,  the  directions  of  its  lines  may  be  tested  by  moving 
the  slate  so  that  the  lines  may  cover  those  of  the  object,  one  at  a  time. 
But  for  the  young  pupil  to  get  the  best  results  from  the  work,  the 
models  must  be  placed  so  that  a  drawing  of  fair  size  can  be  held  in 
such  a  way  as  to  appear  to  coincide  with  the  object. 

The  slate  may  be  used  to  test  the  accuracy  of  a  drawing  on  paper 
by  tracing  this  drawing  onto  the  slate,  and  then  holding  it  before  the 
object  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  slate  at  once  introduces  in  the  most  forcible  way  the  subject 
of  appearances  entirely  separate  from  and  in  contradiction  to  the 
facts.  After  a  little  study  upon  it,  many  of  the  pupils  are  found  to 
draw  at  first  trial  fairly  well  by  eye,  and  it  will  be  well  to  discard  the 
slate,  at  least  part  of  the  time,  or  to  use  it  as  a  test  in  the  way  just 
explained. 

The  reason  why  free-hand  drawing  has  always  been  so  difficult  to 
teach  is  that  no  sure  way  of  awakening  the  first  correct  impression  of 
the  appearance  of  the  form  has  been  given  the  student.  When  this 
impression  has  been  received  and  appreciated,  the  rest  is  easy  and 
consists  simply  in  practice. 

The  objection  of  some  that  the  slate  may  be  used  to  trace  the 
appearance,  and  that  it  is  thus  simply  a  mechanical  means  of  making 
a  drawing,  will  apply  when  teachers  allow  or  advise  pupils  to  work  in 
this  way.  When,  however,  they  are  told  how  to  use  the  slate  properly, 
there  will  be  few  who  will  not  find  such  use  more  interesting  than  the 
tracing  of  the  form,  and  those  who  disobey  and  trace  will  even  then 
obtain  a  better  idea  of  the  apparent  form  than  they  would  without  the 
slate. 

Tracing  is,  however,  quite  impossible  in  any  except  the  first  les- 
sons from  objects  placed  upon  the  desks,  or  so  that  the  slate  may  rest 


30 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


upon  the  desk  or  other  support.  The  slate  cannot  be  held  steadily 
by  the  hand,  and  this  is  the  effective  safeguard  against  its  improper 
use.  When  a  drawing  has  been  made  upon  the  slate,  it  may  be  held 
with  both  hands  steadily  enough  so  that  it  may  be  compared  with  the 
object,  and  its  proportions  and  masses  tested  ;  but  the  tracing  of 
more  than  a  line  or  two  of  the  distant  object  will  be  impossible  until 
the  slate  is  held  and  a  sight  fixed  for  the  eye  ;  and  such  aids  to 
mechanical  work  should  not  be  given  the  pupil. 

In  the  drawings  of  groups  of  models  it  will  be  difficult  to  hold  the 
slate  so  as  to  compare  the  smallest  details.  The  masses,  and  the 
directions  of  all  important  lines  can,  however,  be  seen,  and  the  pupil 
who  trains  his  eye  to  give  these  correctly  will  have  little  trouble  with 
the  minor  points.  As  the  size  of  the  subject  and  the  number  of  its 
parts  increase,  so  does  the  difficulty  of  holding  the  slate  so  that  it  may 
give  more  than  the  principal  masses ;  therefore  the  pupil  who  does 
not  understand  that  the  slate  is  not  given  as  a  means  for  tracing  will 
be  disappointed  in  its  use. 

A  tracing  of  a  large  subject  which  is  near,  or  any  extended  subject 
such  as  an  interior,  becomes  a  plane  perspective  drawing,  which 
always  distorts  large  parts  of  what  it  represents.  It  is  impossible  to 
make  a  tracing  upon  a  slate  placed  near  the  eye,  of  any  extended  sub- 
ject which  shall  represent  the  different  parts  of  the  extended  subject 
just  as  they  appear.  In  order  to  represent  such  subjects  with  the 
best  success,  the  draughtsman  must  have  made  a  careful  study  of  the 
theory  of  appearances  and  the  distortions  of  plane  perspective.  He 
cannot  avoid  error  by  mechanical  means,  such  as  tracing,  or  the  use 
of  photographs,  which  are  frequently  the  most  distorted  representa- 
tions it  is  possible  to  make.  The  avoidance  of  some  distortion  of 
detail  in  a  drawing  representing  a  wide  field  of  view  is  impossible ;  but 
this  is  a  question  of  theory  which  is  considered  in  Chapter  VII. 

The  special  pencil  required  for  use  upon  the  slate  is  called  the 
Cross  Pencil.  It  is  sold  by  Ginn  «&  Co.  and  marks  as  readily  upon 
glass,  china,  or  any  polished  surface,  as  upon  paper. 

The  pencils  are  of  an  oily  nature  and  should  not  be  placed  near 
a  radiator  as  they  will  become  too  soft  for  use.  If  pencils  should 
soften  by  heat  they  will  harden  when  placed  in  a  cool  place.  To 
give  the  best  results  the  pencil,  slate,  and  air  should  be  at  about  the 
same  temperature. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
SPECIAL    DIRECTIONS    FOR   TEACHERS. 

Drawing  on  the  Slate. 

The  teacher  who  does  not  understand  how  to  draw,  or  how  to  use 
the  glass  slate,  must  prepare  for  her  work  by  drawing  upon  the  slate 
just  as  her  pupils  do.  A  short  time  spent  in  this  study  will  enable 
her  to  draw  well  enough  to  give  good  advice  and  criticism  to  her 
pupils. 

The  teacher  who  understands  how  to  draw  and  how  to  use  the  slate, 
will  require  little  instruction  in  the  details  of  her  work ;  and  she  will 
obtain  the  best  results  by  depending  upon  her  own  judgment  instead 
of  upon  directions  given  by  those  who  have  no  knowledge  of  her 
pupils  and  of  their  varying  needs. 

It  is  impossible  to  carry  out  with  different  classes  lengthy  and 
detailed  directions,  even  if  they  have  been  successfully  followed  in 
special  cases.  The  directions  given  here  are  to  be  considered  as 
suggestions  for  the  experiments  which  may  show  teachers  the  best 
ways  of  handling  the  subject  in  their  own  classrooms. 

In  the  primary  grades  the  slate  may  be  placed  flat  upon  the  desk 
during  the  work  in. drawing  ;  but  as  soon  as  possible  it  should  be  held 
in  the  left  hand,  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  seen ; 
since  when  flat  upon  the  desk  the  surface  of  the  slate  is  generally  fore- 
shortened and  pupils  cannot  see  the  real  proportions  of  their  drawings. 

The  pencil  should  be  as  long  as  possible.  It  should  be  held 
lightly  in  the  fingers,  near  the  middle  or  at  the  unsharpened  end, 
for  all  except  the  final  accenting  of  the  sketch  and  the  drawing 
of  lines  at  one  touch,  for  which  work  it  must  be  held  nearer  the 
point  and  more  firmly. 

The  first  practice  should  be  in  free  arm  movements  and  should 
aim  to  make  the  pupils  work  freely  by  first  suggesting  the  whole 
drawing  in  light  touches,  and  then  adding  others  until  the  desired 


32 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


effect  is  obtained  by  a  gradual  development  or  growth  of  the  parts, 
in  which  every  line  and  touch  helps  every  other. 

The  point  most  necessary  for  the  pupils  to  understand  is  that 
they  cannot  expect  to  draw  correctly  at  first  touch,  and  that  it  is 
useless  to  spend  unnecessary  time  upon  lines  which  must  be  changed. 
Of  course,  practice  of  free  arm  movements  will  enable  an  approxi- 
mate straight  line  or  regular  curve,  as  the  circle  or  ellipse,  to  be 
drawn  with  one  movement.  The  power  to  do  this  is  desirable,  but 
principally  because  it  will  enable  pupils  to  obtain  correct  drawings, 
after  making  a  comparatively  small  number  of  changes  in  the  lines 
first  suggested. 

Free  arm  movements  may  be  practised  in  the  air,  upon  the  slate, 
or  upon  paper,  and  should  be  repeated  frequently.  Pupils  should 
be  encouraged  to  spend  any  spare  moments,  whether  of  the  drawing 
hour  or  other  period,  in  this  way. 


In  this  practice  the  motion  should  be  perfectly  free  and  of  the 
whole  arm  from  the  shoulder.  The  lines  should  be  gone  over  re- 
peatedly with  a  rapid,  continuous  motion.  In  circles  and  ellipses 
the  motion  should  be  from  left  to  right.  In  straight  lines  the  pencil 
should  be  on  the  slate  or  paper  all  the  time,  and  the  lines  drawn  in 
both  directions. 

The  printed  copies  for  use  in  the  lower  grades  are  to  be  so  placed 
on  the  model  support  at  the  back  of  the  desk  as  to  be  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  in  which  they  are  seen. 


SPECIAL   DIRECTIONS  FOR    TEACHERS,  33 

The  first  copies  are  to  be  full  size,  and  are  to  be  made  by  eye 
without  any  measurements.  They  are  to  be  tested  by  folding  the 
flap  back  and  holding  the  slate  so  that  the  drawing  covers  the  copy. 
If  the  drawing  is  the  same  size  as  the  copy  and  is  correct,  the  two 
will  appear  to  coincide ;  if  incorrect  or  not  the  right  size,  the  pupils 
will  at  once  see  what  changes  to  make.  These  may  be  made  without 
erasing,  unless  it  is  necessary  in  order  that  the  pupils  may  see  the 
drawing  and  the  copy  at  the  same  time. 

-When  testing  these  full-size  drawings,  the  slate  must  be  held 
against  the  printed  copy,  with  its  long  edges  horizontal,  that  is, 
parallel  to  those  of.  the  book.  The  book  must  not  be  taken  from  the 
model  support  and  held  behind  the  slate. 

When  drawing  from  the  printed  lines  the  pupils  should  endeavor 
to  give  their  lengths,  positions,  and  relations,  and  also  to  divide  them 
as  the  copies  are  divided.  In  these  lessons  special  care  must  be 
taken,  when  testing,  to  have  the  slate  held  with  its  edges  parallel  to 
those  of  the  book. 

The  square,  circle,  and  any  regular  polygon  drawn  from  the  copy 
may  be  tested,  if  drawn  smaller  or  larger  than  full  size,  by  holding 
the  slate  so  that  the  drawing  and  the  copy  are  concentric. 

If  the  pupils  are  able  to  close  one  eye  when  testing  the  drawings 
of  copies,  tablets,  or  solids  which'  are  smaller  than  full  size,  they  may 
be  made  to  appear  to  coincide  with  the  copy  or  the  object  drawn,  by 
holding  the  slate  nearer  the  eye  than  the  copy  or  object.  As  soon  as 
possible  this  way  of  testing  should  be  explained  and  used  exclusively. 

When  able  to  draw  the  forms  of  the  simple  copies,  the  pupils 
may  draw  from  large  tablets  placed  upon  the  model  support  so  as  to 
appear  their  real  shapes.  The  drawings  may  be  tested  as  were  those 
from  the  printed  cards. 

The  circle  and  square  should  be  drawn  first,  and  repeatedly,  and 
then  the  other  tablets.  The  polygons  should  be  placed  in  many 
different  positions  so  that  their  edges  may  have  all  possible  relations 
to  the  desk.  These  tablets  should  be  drawn  until  the  pupils  can 
represent  their  real  shapes  correctly. 

When  drawing  these  forms,  practice  in  comparing  distances  may 
be  given  by  placing  points  for  the  centres  of  the  figures.  When 
placed,  the  positions  of  the  points  should  be  tested. 


34 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Drawings  made  on  paper  may  be  tested  by  tracing  them  upon  the 
slate  and  then  by  holding  the  slate  and  comparing  in  the  usual 
manner.  Drawings  from  copies,  tablets,  or  solids  may  be  made  and 
tested  in  this  way.  It  is,  however,  not  as  generally  satisfactory  as 
the  direct  use  of  the  slate. 

The  drawings  should  be  made  without  placing  points  for  the 
ends  of  lines  and  the  corners  of  figures,  except  when  the  work  is 
intended  to  be  dictation.  There  should  be  one  method  for  all  the 
work,  and  it  should  be  artistic  instead  of  mechanical.  If  pupils 
begin  by  placing  points  it  will  be  difficult  for  them  to  change  and 
consider  the  masses  (the  whole)  in  later  work. 

Foreshortening. 

The  circular  or  square  tablet  may  be  placed  horizontally  at  the 
back  of  the  desk  for  the  first  lesson  involving  foreshortening.  No 
study  of  theory  or  explanation  of  principles  is  necessary  or  advis- 
able. Let  the  pupils  arrange  and  draw  the  tablets,  and  then  test  by 
holding  the  slates  as  they  have  held  them  when  drawing  from  the 
copies  and  the  cards  when  not  foreshortened.  After  a  few  experi- 
ments they  will  understand  that  the  tablets  do  not  appear  their  real 
shapes,  and  they  will  be  interested  to  study  other  forms  in  the  same 
way. 

Pupils  who  begin  the  use  of  the  slate  by  drawing  from  the  printed 
copies  will  have  little  difficulty  in  using  it  to  test  the  drawings  of 
foreshortened  forms.  Any  pupil  who  is  unable  to  hold  the  slate  to 
test  perspective  drawings  will  be  assisted  by  placing  a  piece  of  paper 
about  ^"  in  diameter  upon  the  desk  and  marking  a  point  upon  the 
slate.  He  will  readily  hold  the  slate  so  that  the  point  appears  to 
cover  the  paper. 

After  this  he  may  place  a  stick  upon  the  desk,  and  draw  upon 
the  slate  a  line  shorter  than  the  stick.  By  holding  the  slate  in  front 
of  the  stick,  and  changing  the  distance  of  the  slate  and  its  angle 
with  the  desk,  the  line  may  be  made  to  appear  to  coincide  with  the 
stick ;  and  in  the  same  way  it  may  be  made  to  appear  to  cover  any 
line  whatever  in  the  room.  These  experiments  will  help  the  pupils 
to  understand  that  a  correct  picture  of  any  tablet  or  object  must 


SPECIAL   DIRECTIONS  FOR    TEACHERS. 


35 


appear,  in  every  part,  to  coincide  with  the 'corresponding  part  of  the 
object. 

The  problem  may  be  simplified  for  young  pupils  by  having  the 
nearest  point  or  edge  of  the  tablet  touch  the  slate,  and  the  slate  rest 
upon  the  desk,  so  as  to  be  held  steadily  for  the  test.  In  order  that 
the  tablets  touch  the  slate,  they  must  be  raised  from  the  desk  by 
a  book  or  other  object.  When  thus  arranged,  the  slate  is  to  be 
placed  upon  the  desk  and  against  the  tablet,  and  held  by  the  left 
hand  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  tablet  is  seen ; 
while  with  the  pencil  held  in  the  right  hand  the  angle  or  edge  of  the 
tablet  op  the  slate  is  traced.  The  slate  is  then  to  be  taken  up  and 
the  drawing  completed  by  eye,  above  its  lowest  point  or  line  traced 
on  the  slate.  To  test  the  drawing,  the  slate  is  placed  in  the  position 
it  had  when  the  point  or  edge  of  the  tablet  on  the  slate  was  traced. 

When  the  tablet  is  placed  upon  a  small  object,  the  slate  may  be 
supported  as  an  easel  by  opening  it  at  an  angle 
with  the  flap,  and  resting  the  two  parts  on  the 
desk  as  illustrated.  This  enables  the  pupil  to  give 
his  entire  attention  to  the  comparison  of  the  draw- 
ing and  the  object. 

In  all  this  work,  when  the  test  is  applied,  the  eye  should  be  in 
the  same  position  it  had  when  the  drawing  was  made.  These  first 
experiments  give,  however,  simply  an  idea  of  perspective,  and  this 
will  be  gained  if  the  positions  are  not  exactly  the  same. 

When  pupils  are  allowed  to  begin  in  this  way,  they  should,  as 
quickly  as  possible  after  this  method,  be  taught  to  hold  the  slate  at 
arm's  length,  and  nearer  the  eye  than  the  object,  in  order  that  they 
may  make  drawings  which  are  more  pleasing  than  those  which  will 
result  from  the  eye  being  near  rthe  object  and  some  distance 
above  it. 

Few  pupils  who  have  drawn  from  the  printed  copies  and  the 
tablets  placed  to  appear  their  real  shapes,  will  have  mlich  trouble  in 
using  the  slate  properly  in  work  involving  foreshortening.  Tracing 
to  a  greater  extent  than  that  indicated  above  should  not  be  allowed, 
for  many  of  the  pupils  will  not  think  of  tracing  if  it  is  not  explained, 
and  thus  they  will  not  be  tempted  to  avoid  work  by  tracing  instead 
of  drawing. 


36 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Having  drawn  from  the  circular  and  square  tablets,  the  pupils 
miy  be  led  to  see  that  these  may  appear  straight  lines,  or  figures  of 
any  width  up  to  their  actual  width.  To  illustrate  this  fact  in  the 
simplest  way,  cut  a  circular  piece  of  paper  with  a  projecting  piece  at 
one  side,  and  hold  the  circle  against  the  back  of  the  slate  while 
tracing  its  real  shape.  Then  swing  the  circle  back  and  observe  its 
appearance  when  it  is  at  different  angles  to  the  slate.  This  experi- 
ment with  the  circle,  a  similar  one  with  the  square  (see  Lesson  I., 
page  56),  and,  if  desired,  with  the  triangle,  or  other  forms,  may  be 
made  and  understood  by  young  pupils.  Theories  and  rules,  how- 
ever, should  not  be  stated  until  the  pupils  have  had  more  expe- 
rience. 

In  arranging  tablets  and  other  objects  for  study,  no  care  should 
be  taken  to  obtain  definite  angles  as  60°,  45°,  or  30°,  etc.  The 
simplest  foreshortened  position  of  the  rectangle  is  when  two  edges 
appear  horizontal.  When  the  illustrations  represent  this  position, 
all  the  tablets  of  the  class  should  be  so  placed ;  but  when  the  illus- 
trations show  tablets  at  angles,  the  angles  are  not  specified  and  are 
immaterial,  and  each  pupil's  tablet  may  be  in  a  different  position. 

When  able  to  represent  single  tablets,  two  may  be  combined  and 
placed  in  different  positions,  as  illustrated  in  the  "  Outlines  of  Les- 
sons." 

If  the  slates  are  used  accurately  enough  to  give  the  convergence 
seen  in  the  vertical  edges,  when  drawing  tablets  and  single  objects, 
there  is  no  reason  why  this  convergence  should  not  be  represented 
until  the  pupils  are  older,  and  the  work  more  advanced,  when  they 
may  be  told  that  it  is  the  custom  to  omit  this  convergence  and 
represent  vertical  edges  by  vertical  lines. 

After  drawing  from  two  tablets  combined,  several  tablets  may  be 
arranged  in  the  form  of  the  type  solids,  or  of  common  objects  based 
upon  them.  The  interior  and  the  exterior  of  the  solid  prism  forms 
should  be  studied,  by  combining  the  tablets  to  present  these  appear- 
ances. 

To  obtain  the  cube,  for  free-hand  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to 
combine  only  two  or  three  square  tablets ;  and  no  more  tablets 
should  be  used  for  any  form  than  are  necessary  to  give  the  visible 
surfaces  for  the  required  position  of  the  object. 


SPECIAL   DIRECTIONS  FOR    TEACHERS.  37 

The  prism  forms  are  best  represented,  for  free-hand  purposes,  by 
tablets  representing  the  bases,  and  connected  by  a  rod  which  repre- 
sents the  axis  of  the  prism.  Both  ends  of  the  prism  are  thus  visible 
at  the  same  time. 

For  the  first  few  years  all  tablets  and  combinations  of  tablets 
should  be  placed  at  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  desk,  for  the  desk 
line  behind  the  tablets  will  then  appear  horizontal  and  assist  the 
pupils  to  correct  their  work.  If  the  tablets  are  placed  at  the  corner 
of  the  desk,  the  desk  line  will  appear  inclined  and  the  problem  is 
much  more  difficult. 

The  desk  line  (called  table  line)  should  not  be  represented  in  the 
first  work,  for  it  is  thought  of  as  horizontal,  and  when  in  later  work 
it  does  not  appear  horizontal,  the  pupils  will,  if  in  the  habit  of  rep- 
resenting it  by  a  horizontal  line,  be  prevented  from  seeing  correctly 
the  directions  of  the  lines  of  the  object.  In  the  upper  grades,  and 
after  having  drawn  from  objects  at  a  distance  and  not  directly  in 
front  of  the  pupils  (when  referred  to  the  desk  or  the  walls  of  the 
room),  the  table  line  or  edge  of  the  shelf  supporting  the  objects  may 
be  represented,  but  always  as  an  inclined  line  when  its  ends  or 
points  in  it  on  each  side,  equally  distant  from  the  group,  are  un- 
equally distant  from  the  eye.  The  custom  of  drawing  a  horizontal 
line  to  represent  this  edge,  when  it  seldom  appears  horizontal,  is  one 
of  the  many  evil  results  of  the  teaching  which  assumes  that  drawing 
can  be  understood  and  taught  by  mental  processes  only. 

In  some  cities  an  adjustable  model-support  is  used,  which  is 
attached  at  the  corner  of  the  desk,  and  is  valuable  as  it  gives  any 
desired  elevation  to  the  object.  When  this  is  used  in  the  lower 
grades,  its  edges  should  not  be  parallel  to  those  of  the  desk.  The 
edges  should  be  so  placed  that  the  ends  of  the  nearer  edge  are  equally 
distant  from  the  pupil's  eyes.  In  the  upper  grades,  they  should  be 
placed  in  various  positions  and  their  lines  represented  in  every 
drawing. 

After  the  pupils  are  able  to  draw  and  test  with  ease  the  tablets  and 
combinations  of  tablets  placed  on  their  own  desks,  they  should  draw 
from  objects  farther  away.  Drawings  on  the  slate  ought  never  to  be 
less  than  about  two  or  three  inches  long,  according  to  the  subject 
studied.     Thre  drawing  which  will  appear  to  cover  a  distant  object, 


^S  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

will  be  much  too  small  to  be  satisfactory  unless  the  object  is  quice 
large.  All  drawings  on  the  slate  or  on  paper  should  be  of  fair  size, 
and,  as  large  drawings  cannot  be  made  to  appear  to  cover  the  object, 
it  is  necessary  to  find  some  new  way  to  test  their  proportions.  The 
use  of  the  pencil  to  obtain  the  proportions  of  objects  is  explained  in 
Chapter  V,  and  also  in  the  "Grammar  Outline  of  Lessons,"  and, 
after  the  slate,  is  the  method  of  most  value  to  the  pupils. 

Drawings  which  are  too  large  to  appear  to  coincide  with  the  ob- 
ject may  be  tested  by  holding  the  slate  so  that,  one  at  a  time,  the 
different  points  of  the  drawing  may  appear  to  cover  the  correspond- 
ing points  of  the  object.  In  this  way  the  directions  of  all  the  lines 
meeting  at  a  point  may  be  tested,  and  if  the  directions  are  correct 
throughout  the  drawing,  the  proportions  must  be  also. 

In  the  upper  grades  memory  drawings  of  the  cube,  cylinder,  and 
other  type  forms  may  be  made  on  the  slate.  These  may  be  tested 
by  placing  the  object  at  any  level  and  angle  such  that  the  drawing 
on  the  slate  may  be  made  to  appear  to  coincide  with  the  object. 
When  a  memory  drawing  represents  a  possible  appearance  of, any 
object,  a  few  experiments  will  give  the  position  of  the  object  in 
which  the  drawing  will  appear  to  coincide  with  it. 

The  chief  value  of  the  slate  consists  in  the  instant  and  certain 
test  of  proportions  given  by  its  use.  Many  pupils  who  use  the  slate 
through  the  lower  grades  will,  when  in  the  upper  grades,  have  little 
need  for  it  or  other  means  of  testing,  as  they  will  be  able  to  depend 
upon  their  eyes ;  and  all  pupils  of  the  upper  grammar  grades  will 
find  the  best  use  of  the  slate  to  be  in  the  rapid  sketching,  by  eye 
entirely,  of  large  simple  objects  whose  proportions  may  be  tested  by 
holding  the  sketch  upon  the  slate  to  cover  the  object,  in  the  usual 
manner. 

Pupils  must  expect  to  make  sketches,  and  not  finished  drawings, 
upon  the  slate.  Having  used  the  slate,  they  will  understand  what 
a  sketch  is,  and,  more  important,  will  be  able  to  work  in  a  sketchy 
und  artistic  manner. 

The  slate  may  be  used  for  reviews  of  the  facts  of  form,  for 
the  free-hand  working  drawings  made  in  studying  principles  pre- 
liminary to  the  instrumental  drawings,  and  for  all  work  in  drawing 
Vhich  is  not  intended  to  be  kept  to  show  the  capacity  of  the  students. 


SPECIAL   DIRECTIONS  FOR    TEACHERS.  39 

The  fact  that  the  work  done  upon  the  slate  is  not  kept,  is  beneficial ; 
for  most  unsatisfactory  results  are  due  to  the  instruction  commonly 
given,  by  which  pupils  are  assisted  to  perform  a  certain  amount 
of  work,  all  of  which  is  kept  as  if  it  were  valuable. 

The  objection  of  some  to  the  use  of  the  slate  is  that  the  super- 
visor cannot  see  all  the  work  done  by  the  pupils.  This  is  not  con- 
sidered important,  for  pupils  cannot  draw  without  study,  and  if  the 
practice  work  is  not  done,  the  drawings  on  paper  or  in  the  book  will 
show  it,  and  the  supervisor  can  at  any  time  ask  that  all  the  drawings 
be  made  on  paper,  if  for  any  reason  he  desires  to  see  them. 

When  the  air  is  very  damp  and  the  slate  is  cold,  the  moisture 
will  condense  upon  it,  and  the  pencil  will  not  work  until  the  slate 
has  been  rubbed  with  a  dry  cloth  or  warmed.  There  are  in  a 
school  year  but  few  days  when  this  trouble  will  occur,  and*  it  is 
readily  remedied  as  explained  above,  or  avoided  by  drawing  on 
paper. 

The  slate  should  be  cleaned  at  the  end  of  each  lesson,  as  the 
lines  are  more  readily  removed  at  this  time  than  at  any  later  period. 
A  dry  woolen  cloth  with  a  rough  surface  should  be  used  for  erasing. 
Albatross  cloth  or  nun's  veiling  is  the  best. 

Drawing  on  Paper. 

When  books  are  not  used,  pupils  should  draw  upon  blocks  or 
upon  sheets  of  paper  fastened  to  Small  drawing  boards,  so  that  the 
paper,  during  all  except  the  finishing  or  accenting  of  the  drawing, 
may  be  held  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  seen. 
This  is  especially  important^  and  in  all  free-hand  drawing  the  slate ^ 
book,  or  block  should  be  held  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it 
is  seen. 

Drawings  upon  separate  sheets  of  paper  should  be  numbered 
and  dated,  and  arranged  in  order  in  large  envelopes  kept  for  this 
purpose  by  the  pupils. 

The  drawing  books  should  be  fastened  to  cardboard  or  other 
backs,  in  order  that  they  may  be  used  as  blocks.  The  book  may  be 
placed  upon  the  model  support,  which  is  changed  into  a  desk  easel 
by  extending  the  base,  or  held  in  the  hand  while  the  first  sketching 


40 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


is  done ;  but  it  may  be  placed  flat  upon  the  desk  when  the  drawing 
is  ready  for  accenting. 

When  copies  from  the  book  are  to  be  drawn  on  the  slate,  the 
book  should  be  supported  by  the  cardboard  back  and  placed  upon 
the  model  support. 

For  the  upper  grades  the  pupils  should  be  asked  to  make  draw- 
ings from  outdoor  subjects  of  a  simple  nature,  and  from  any  objects, 
found  at  home  or  elsewhere,  which  interest  them.  A  cheap  sketch 
book  is  the  best  means  of  interesting  the  pupils  and  of  keeping 
the  drawings.  These  books  may  be  criticised  by  the  teacher  occa- 
sionally. 

A  few  moments'  talk  once  in  a  while  upon  the  pictures  of  the 
magazines  will  interest  and  instruct  the  pupils.  Such  drawings 
should  be  cut  out  and  fastened  upon  the  walls. 

The  reproductions  of  artists'  and  old  masters'  drawings,  given 
in  each  drawing  book,  are  valuable,  as  they  furnish  each  pupil  the 
best  inspiration  for  individual  work,  even  when  they  are  drawing 
the  type  forms  in  outline  ;  and  they  give  the  pupils  of  the  upper 
grades  the  best  information  of  the  way  in  which  the  drawings  they 
desire  to  make  at  home  should  be  handled. 

These  reproductions  are  not  intended  as  copies,  but  pupils  who 
work  at  home  and  out-of-doors  will  be  helped  by  copying  a  drawing 
once  in  a  while,  after  having  attempted  original  drawings  in  the 
same  style  of  handling.  This  copying  should  not  be  done  during 
the  drawing  period. 

When  working  from  foliage,  flowers,  fruits,  or  vegetables,  the 
aim  should  be  for  artistic,  and  not  for  structural  or  botanical  draw- 
ings. Drawings  which  give  all  the  minute  veins  and  details  of  these 
subjects  may  be  made  for  the  study  of  botany,  but  the  drawing  hour 
should  be  devoted  to  artistic  rendering,  to  the  study  of  the  masses 
and  the  effect,  and  not  to  details  of  growth  which  are  unimportant 
artistically. 

Details  of  folisige  and  vegetable  growths  may  be  studied  in  about 
the  following  order,  though  this  is  unimportant  if  too  diflicult  work 
is  not  given. 

Single,  large,  simple  leaves  placed  so  their  real  shapes  are  seen. 

Vegetables  and  fruit. 


SPECIAL   DIRECTIONS  FOR    TEACHERS.  4 1 

Single,  large  leaves  when  foreshortened. 

Face  views  of  flowers. 

Side  views  of  flowers. 

Sprays  of  foliage  placed  so  the  leaves  appear  their  real  shapes. 

Sprays  of  foliage  placed  in  any  natural  position. 

Sprays  of  foliage  and  flowers  in  any  natural  position. 

Foliage  and  flowers,  as  in  potted  plants. 

Sprays  of  foliage  may  be  placed  in  bottles  filled  with  water  or 
with  wet  sand.     The  sand  will  hold  them  firmly  in  position. 

Plants  with  simple,  large  leaves,  such  as  the  geranium,  calla  lily, 
begonia,  primrose,  gloxinia,  cowslip,  jack-in-the-pulpit,  and  rubber 
plant,  may  be  placed  on  boards  across  the  aisles  and  drawn  by  the 
pupils  of  the  eighth  grade. 

Blackboard  Drawing. 

Pupils  who  work  for  a  long  time  upon  drawings  of  uniform  size 
find  it  very  difficult  to  make  larger  or  smaller  drawings ;  for  this 
reason  blackboard  drawings  should  be  made  occasionally.  These 
drawmgs  should  be  of  the  same  nature  as  the  other  work.  As  few 
pupils  can  work  on  the  board  at  the  same  time,  this  work  should  be 
done  outside  the  drawing  period ;  and  if  it  is  not  possible  to  place 
objects  so  that  pupils  may  draw  from  them,  they  may  draw  from 
memory.  The  making  of  "pictures,"  copying,  etc.,  should  not  be 
allowed. 


CHAPTER  V. 
TESTS. 

In  beginning,  the  pupil  should  understand  that  his  drawings  are 
of  no  value  in  themselves,  but  are  of  use  only  as  they  train  the  eye 
to  see  correctly.  The  eye  can  be  taught,  or  rather  the  mind  can  be 
made  to  accept  the  image  of  the  eye,  only  by  depending  upon  it : 
if  the  student  begins  by  measuring  and  testing  he  will  never  be  able  to 
draw  otherwise.  Depending  upon  measurements  is  undesirable  for 
many  reasons,  the  most  important  being  that  no  measurements  can 
be  applied  which  will  take  the  place  of  correct  perception,  or  begin 
to  equal  the  trained  eye.  It  is  thus  important  that  the  student,  from 
the  beginning,  depend  entirely  for  his  first  drawing  upon  his  eyes. 

The  best  possible  training  for  all,  young  or  old,  is  the  use  of  the 
glass  slate. 

Without  the  slate,  the  readiest  way  of  determining  the  apparent 
proportions  of  an  object  is  by  the  use  of  a  pencil  or  any  straight, 
slender  rod  held  at  arm's  length,  so  as  to  appear  to  cover  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  object  which  are  to  be  compared. 

Thus,  if  the  top  of  the  pencil,  when  it  is  held  at  right  angles  to 
the  direction  in  which  the  object  is  seen  and  so  as  to  appear  vertical, 
is  made  to  cover  the  top  of  an  object,  and  the  bottom  of  the  object  is 
marked  upon  the  pencil  by  the  thumb  nail,  the  distance  thus  set  off 
on  the  pencil  measures  the  apparent  height  of  the  object.  If  the 
pencil  is  now  revolved  to  a  horizontal  position,  the  apparent  height 
may  be  compared  with  the  apparent  width  by  holding  the  pencil  so 
that  its  end  appears  to  cover  the  left  point  of  the  object.  If  the 
width  appears  the  same  as  the  height,  the  thumb  nail  will  appear  to 
cover  the  right  point  of  the  object.  If  the  width  is  greater  or  less 
than  the  height,  the  proportion  may  be  readily  observed. 

The  shorter  measurement  should  always  be  compared  with  the  longer. 

The  pencil  must  be  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  object 
is  seen.     Nearly  all  students  think  the  pencil  should  be  parallel  to  the 


TESTS. 


43 


side  of  the  room  or  the  bench  upon  which  the  object  rests.  This, 
however,  is  wholly  false,  for  the  position  of  the  object  with  reference 
to  its  surroundings  is  of  no  consequence,  and  must  not  be  considered 
when  the  actual  appearance  of  the  object  is  desired.  If  a  cube  is 
to  be  represented,  the  student  must  look  at  it.  The  plane  which 
gives  its  real  appearance  is  perpendicular  to  the  direction  in  which 
he  looks,  and  when  measuring,  the  pencil  must  always  be  held  in  this 
position.  When  thus  held,  its  ends  are  the  same  distance  from  the 
eye,  and  the  pencil  is  not  vertical  when  the  student  looks  at  an  ob- 
ject above  or  below  the  level  of  the  eye.^ 

A  good  plan  is  to  find  some  position  in  the  fingers  in  which  the 


Fig.  12. 


pencil  is  perpendicular  to  the  arm,  which,  when  outstretched,  brings 
the  pencil  into  practically  the  correct  position.     See  Fig.  12. 

It  is  important  that  this  use  of  the  pencil  shall  determine  simply 
the  proportion  of  the  drawing  and  not  its  actual  size.  The  measure- 
ments on  the  pencil  should  not  be  transferred  to  the  paper ;  for  the 
eye  and  hand  are  generally  in  different  positions  when  the  various 
measurements  are  taken,  and  if  they  are  transferred  to  the  paper  the 
drawing  resulting  will  be  incorrect  in  proportion.  Not  only  this,  but 
the  drawing  will  be  limited  in  size  and  will  often  be  too  small. 

The  great  difficulty  in  the  use  of  the  pencil  for  measuring  is  that 
it  is  not  held  properly,  —  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the 

1  To  be  exact,  the  part  of  the  pencil  which  includes  the  measurement  should 
be  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  pupil  sees  the  object,  but  practi- 
cally such  fine  results  cannot  be  obtained  and  are  unnecessary. 


44 


FREE-HAND   DRA  WING. 


object  is  seen.  Even  students  in  art  schools,  after  months  of  study, 
are  frequently  seen  measuring  with  the  pencil  foreshortened  to  the 
extent  of  20  or  30  degrees.  This  may  be  avoided  by  measuring  from 
the  unsharpened  end  of  the  pencil  instead  of  from  the  sharpened 
end;  for  when  the  pencil  is  held  so  that  the  flat  end  appears  a 
straight  line,  it  must  be  about  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in 
which  the  object  is  seen. 

A  much  better  device,  especially  for  young  pupils,  is  a  rod  about 
as  long  as  a  pencil,  its  outer  surface  black,  with  the  two  ends  cut 
squarely  and  of  the  natural  color  of  the  wood.  When  this  measuring 
rod  is  held  so  that  neither  light  end  is  seen,  it  is  in  the  proper 
position  for  measuring  ;  but  if  one  of  the  white  ends  is  visible,  the  rod 
is  at  an  angle.  A  substitute  for  this  special  rod  is  an  unsharpened 
pencil.  This  simple  device  should  enable  all  to  measure  properly, 
and  will  be  of  great  assistance  to  those  teachers  jvho  now  find  it 
impossible  to  have  the  pencil  properly  held. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  bending  a  hairpin  about  a 
large  knitting  needle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  One  end  of  the  hairpin,  A^ 
projects  for  about  an  inch  at  right  angles  to  the 
needle  and  forms  a  sight,  and  the  other,  after  passing 
around  the  needle  several  times,  is  brought  back  and 
projects  a  short  distance  at  right  angles  to  the  first 
end.  The  longer  end  serves  to  place  the  needle  at 
right  angles  to  the  line  of  vision,  for  when  only  the 
end  of  the  sight  is  seen,  the  needle  must  be  prop- 
erly placed.  The  wire,  should  press  the  needle 
enough  to  stay  in  position  upon  it.  It  may  be 
moved  so  that  the  measurement  is  included  between 
the  end  of  the  needle  and  the  short  projecting  end  of  the  wire. 
When  the  needle  is  turned  for  comparison,  the  second  measurement 
may  be  taken  by  the  thumb  nail,  and  the  proportions  may  then  be 
determined  at  leisure  ;  this  is  the  only  advantage  of  this  device 
over  the  straight  rod  with  ends  at  right  angles  to  the  rod,  and  the 
simpler  rod  will  be  all  that  is  necessary  for  most  students. 

The  proportions  of  any  object  may  also  be  accurately  measured 
by  the  simple  object  illustrated  in  Fig.  14.  It  consists  of  two  parts : 
first,  a  card  which  has  a  long  rectangular  opening,  and  second,  a 


TESTS. 


45 


Fig. 


sliding  part  made  by  folding  and  gluing  together  around  the  card  a 
piece  of  paper  which  serves  as  a  shutter,  and  which  may  be  moved  to 
give  any  proportion  to  the  opening  cut  in  the  card.  By  holding  the 
card  so  that  the  opening  measures  the  height  of  an  object,  and 
moving  the  shutter  until  the  width  is  covered,  the  two  dimensions 
may  be  correctly  obtained,  and  may  be  compared  at  leisure.  To 
facilitate  comparison,  one  vertical  and  one  horizontal  edge  of  the  card 
may  have  set  off  upon  them  equal  spaces  as  %" ,  %" ,  or  y^" , 
according  to  the  size  of  the  opening. 

This  card  will  also  be  valuable  in  determining  the  arrangement  of 
the  drawing  upon  the  paper.     It  serves  as  a  frame  to 
the  subject,  and  may  be  shifted  until  the  best  position 
of  the  sketch  upon  the  paper  is  determined. 

When  proportions  are  compared,  the  distance 
of  the  needle  or  pencil  from  the  eye  must  be  the 
same.  The  distance  is  so  apt  to  vary  that  unless  each  comparison  is 
made  several  times  with  the  same  result,  there  is  little  chance  that 
measurements  will  be  correct.  It  is  useless  to  think  that  tests  not 
carefully  taken  are  worth  the  time  given  them.  It  is  much  better  to 
take  the  one  proportion  of  height  and  width  carefully,  than  to  spend 
the  time  necessary  to  do  this  on  half  a  dozen  measurements  which 
are  sure  to  contradict,  and  do  more  harm  than  good. 

It  is  impossible  to  compare  accurately  a  short  distance,  with  one 
many  times  greater.  If  the  height  is  equal  to  or  is  nearly  one-half  or 
one-third  of  the  width,  care  will  so  determine  it ;  but  with  every  new 
position  of  the  hand  in  moving  a  short  distance  over  a  long,  inaccu- 
racy arises,  and  it  is  well  to  avoid  such  comparisons,  for  they  are  not 
only  not  to  be  depended  upon  but  are  unnecessary. 

The  inaccuracy  is  produced  43y  inability  to  hold  the  pencil  at  ex- 
actly the  right  place,  and  also  by  the  change  in  the  distance  of  the 
pencil  which  every  movement  away  from  the  first  position  occasions. 

This  movement  may  be  realized  by  tymg  a  thread  to  the  pencil 
and  measuring  its  distance  from  the  eye  by  holding  the  thread  with 
the  left  hand  against  the  brow.  If  the  arm  is  dropped  for  the 
measurement  of  a  near  object  and  the  string  is  tight,  it  will  loosen 
when  the  arm  is  raised,  and  in  the  same  way  it  will  change  for  hori- 
zontal movement.     The  only  way  in  which  exact  measurements  of  an 


46 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


extended  subject  can  be  taken  is  by  the  use  of  such  a  measuring- 
thread  attached  to  the  measuring  rod.  We  wish  to  simpHfy  the 
subject  as  much  as  possible.  If  reasonable  care  is  exercised,  the 
variation  in  the  distance  of  the  pencil,  when  used  without  a  measur- 
ing-thread, may  be  made  so  slight  as  to  be  unimportant  in  the  draw- 
ing of  small  objects. 

When  possible,  all  comparisons  should  be  made  by  swinging  the 
pencil  from  a  vertical  into  a  horizontal  position  by  motion  of  the 

whole  arm  from  the  shoulder, 
avoiding  change  •  in  distance 
by  revolving  the  pencil  about 
one  end  of  the  first  measure- 
ment. Thus,  if  the  height  and 
width  of  a  table  are  to  be  com- 
pared, instead  of  measuring  the 
width  along  the  top  and  drop- 
ping the  hand  to  compare  the 
width  with  the  height,  or  meas- 
uring the  height  and  then  lifting 
the  hand  to  compare  with  the 
width,  make  the  comparison  by 
taking  the  width  along  the  top  and  swinging  the  pencil  down  about 
the  thumb ;  or  by  taking  the  width  at  the  bottom  and  swinging  the 
pencil  up  about  the  thumb,  as  in  Fig.  15.  Measuring  in  this  way 
will  assist  greatly  to  correct  results. 

The  above  are  the  direct  tests  for  proportion,  and  if  carefully 
taken  should  give  the  correct  mass  of  the  drawing  ;  but  for  the  direc- 
tions of  lines  other  tests  are  better. 

It  is  natural  to  compare  directions  with  vertical  and  horizontal 
lines.  A  horizontal  line  whose  ends  are  equidistant  'from  the  eye 
appears  horizontal,  and  is  represented  by  a  horizontal  line.  A  ver- 
tical line  appears  vertical,  and  is  always  represented  by  a  vertical  line. 
If  a  ruler  is  held  horizontal,  with  its  ends  equally  distant  from  the  eye, 
it  illustrates  the  appearance  represented  by  a  horizontal  line  in  the 
drawing.  By  looking  over  the  ruler  thus  held,  the  apparent 
directions  of  lines  of  the  object  may  be  compared  with  the 
horizontal. 


Fig.  15. 


TESTS. 


47 


A*  thread  with  a  weight  attached  serves  as  a  plumb-line.  By 
holding  the  plumb-line  in  front  of  the  object,  the  lines  of  the  object 
may  be  compared  with  the  vertical.  The  thread  may  also  be  used, 
and  is  often  better  than  the  ruler  or  pencil,  for  the  horizontal  line,  as 
it  hides  none  of  the  object.  Care  must  always  be  taken  to  hold  the 
thread  perpendicular  to  a  line  from  the  eye  to  the  object  This 
position  is  easiest  obtained  by  directly  facing  the  group,  extending 
the  arms  equally,  and  holding  in  each  hand  one  end  of  a  piece  of 
thread  about  two  feet  long. 

More  care  must  be  exercised  to  have  the  thread  horizontal.  This 
position  can  be  obtained  by  looking  only  at  the  thread  until  it  is 
levelled,  when  the  student  may  look  beyond  it  at  the  group.  If  there 
are  horizontal  lines  in  the  subject  which  are  parallel  to  the  picture 
plane  they  will  appear  horizontal  and  will  place  the  thread  correctly ; 
but  if  the  horizontal  lines  of  the  subject  are  not  thus  situated,  they 
will  not  appear  horizontal,  and  will  cause  the  thread  to  seem  hori- 
zontal when  it  is  inclined. 

It  may  seem  that  unnecessary  space  has  been  given  to  these 
directions,  but  it  has  been  found  almost  impossible  to  make  many 
students  understand  the  matter  and  hold  the  thread  correctly,  even 
after  repeated  explanations  and  illustrations.  Some,  after  months  of 
study,  are  found  holding  the  thread  or  pencil  at  an  angle  of  from 
ten  to  thirty  degrees  away  from  the  correct  position,  and  it  is  thought 
that  no  explanation  can  be  too  care- 
ful. The  problem  is  so  simple  that 
any  student  who  wishes  to  succeed 
should  have  no  difficulty  ;  he  may  be 
sure  that  he  will  never  learn  to  draw 
until  he  is  able  to  discover  his  mis- 
takes, and  as  the  use  of  the  thread  is  a 
most  important  test,  it  should .  be  cor- 
rectly applied. 

Any  object,  as  the  cube.  Fig.  i6 
having  been  drawn,  may  be  tested  by 
the  thread  as  follows :  Hold  the  thread  horizontally  to  cover  point  5, 
and  note  its  apparent  intersection  with  the  edges  1-6  and  6-7,  Hold 
the  thread  vertically  in  front  of  point  3,  and  see  where  it  intersects 


Fig.  16. 


48  FREE-HAND  DRAWING.  ' 

5-6.  Hold  it  in  front  of  6-7,  and  notice  its  intersection  with' 2-3, 
Hold  the  thread  to  cover  i  and  5,  also  2  and  4,  and  compare  its 
direction  with  a  horizontal  line.  Continue  the  edge  2-7  to  intersect 
5-6,  and  4-7  to  intersect  2-1.  Cover  any  opposite  points,  as  i  and 
3,  3  and  6,  4  and  i,  etc.,  and  notice  where  the  thread  appears  to 
intersect  the  edges  between. 

This  use  of  the  thread  is  simply  a  more  exact  method  of  discover- 
ing angles  than  drawing  lines  in  the  air,  the  method  explained  on 
p.  5.  When  the  eye  is  trained,  the  first,  which  is  of  course  the 
simpler,  is  all  that  is  needed.  Most  students  will  find  the  use  of 
the  thread  necessary.  The  thread  gives  a  fine  line  which  can  be 
made  to  exactly  cover  the  edges  of  the  object,  and  its  intersections 
with  the  edges  can  be  seen  much  more  readily  than  those  of  a  line 
formed  by  a  pencil  or  rule,  which  hides  considerable  of  the  object. 
If  these  tests  with  the  thread  are  applied,  they  cannot  fail  to  discover 
every  error  of  importance. 

The  thread  should  not  be  used  to  measure  the  proportions  of  objects. 

A  last  test  may  be  applied  by  holding  two  pencils  together  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  object  is  seen,  and  separat- 
ing them  until  one  covers  3-4,  and  the  other  covers  1-6.  If  great  care 
is  taken,  the  directions  of  these  lines  with  reference  to  each  other 
may  be  seen,  and  the  drawing  tested  by  continuing  these  lines  in  the 
drawing. 

The  apparent  angle  between  two  lines  may  be  measured  by  fold- 
ing a  strip  of  paper  and  holding  it  so  that  each  part  appears  to  coin- 
cide with  one  of  the  two  lines.  This  test  is  easiest  applied  by  the 
use  of  a  hinged  rule  or  straight-edge  of  two  parts. 

The  two  tests  just  explained  cannot  be  recommended  for  pupils, 
since  there  are  two  straight-edges  to  be  held  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  in  w^hich  the  object  is  seen.  It  is  so  difficult  to  do  this 
that  those  who  can  hold  the  rules  correctly  may  depend  upon  their 
eyes,  and  get  the  drawing  better  without  these  tests  than  with  them. 

Another  way  of  testing  the  direction  of  a  line  is  to  hold  a  straight 
edge  upon  the  line  of  the  drawing  so  that  it  will  project  beyond  the 
board,  and  then  lift  the  board  and  straight  edge  into  the  position  of 
the  picture  plane,  when  the  straight  edge  appears  to  coincide  with  the 
edge  of  the  object  if  the  direction  of  the  line  in  the  drawing  is  correct. 


TESTS. 


49 


I  have  dwelt  thus  carefully  upon  these  tests  in  the  hope  that  the 
student  may  realize  their  importance,  for  he  will  learn  to  draw  cor- 
rectly only  through  his  own  efforts,  gaining  with  each  discovery  of 
error.  He  can  never  become  a  draughtsman  as  long  as  he  depends 
upon  a  teacher  for  corrections.  Let  him  carry  his  drawing  so  far 
that  a  thorough  application  of  all  the  tests  explained  will  show  no 
error ;  then,  as  it  is  simply  a  question  of  exactness  to  be  determined 
by  the  eye,  if  the  trained  eye  of  the  teacher  discovers  mistakes  so 
slight  that  the  student  cannot  rightly  be  expected  to  determine  them, 
these  may  be  pointed  out.  As  the  chief  benefit  results  from  what 
the  student  himself  sees  and  does,  he  will  be  much  better  off  without 
a  teacher  than  with  one  who  does  his  work  for  him. 

The  advanced  art  student  should  use  few  tests,  and  should  not 
require  the  mechanical  aids  which  have  been  explained.  These  dif- 
ferent ways  of  testing  have  been  given,  because  the  teacher  should 
understand  them  all.  They  should  not,  however,  be  explained  to  the 
pupils,  at  least  not  at  once,  or  following  one  another  closely ;  some 
of  them  are  not  suitable  for  pupils  to  attempt,  and  should  not  be 
explained.  The  pupil  who  begins  with  the  slate,  and  later  uses  the 
measuring  rod  and  the  thread,  will  not  require  other  tests,  nor  even 
these,  through  the  entire  course.  When  correcting  pupils'  drawings, 
the  teacher  may  sometimes  find  other  tests  than  the  slate  valuable 
and  convenient.  At  such  times,  ways  of  testing,  such  as  the  use  of 
the  straight  edge  (p.  48),  may  be  explained  to  advanced  pupils,  but 
at  first  the  glass  slate,  and  later  the  thread  and  measuring  rod,  should 
be  depended  upon. 

Some  artists  say  that  students  should  use  no  test  but  their  eyes, 
and  that  even  the  pencil  for  measuring  proportions,  or  the  thread  for 
directions  and  intersections,  are  means  which  are  too  mechanical, 
and  which  should  be  avoided.  They  say  that  the  pupil  should  be 
led  to  "feel "  errors  in  his  drawing. 

As  a  rule,  those  who  are  strongest  in  the  expression  of  such  ideas, 
if  teachers,  are  teachers  of  advanced  students.  It  is  thought  that 
any  one  who  has  had  much  experience  with  pupils  who  have  never 
learned  to  draw  will  say  that  feeling  must  generally  come  after  some 
ability  to  see  has  been  acquired  ;  and  that  to  teach  them  to  see  cor- 
rectly is  a  most  difficult  problem  in  which  the  teacher's  eyes  cannot 


50 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


serve  the  pupil.  This  problem  can  only  be  solved  by  means  which 
prove  to  the  student  the  falsity  of  the  work,  which,  until  the  tests 
are  applied,  seems  perfect  to  him. 

As  the  pencil  is  often  held  carelessly,  its  use  by  students  who 
have  had  some  training  frequently  does  them  more  harm  than  good ; 
especially  when  they  measure  before  drawing,  for  they  make  drawings 
to  agree  with  incorrect  measurements,  when,  if  they  would  use  their 
eyes,  they  would  see  the  proportions  more  correctly. 

Any  means  which  are  used  to  take  the  place  of  the  eyes,  or  any 
tests  which  are  applied  before  drawing,  must  harm  the  student,  for 
they  make  it  difficult  for  him  to  use  his  eyes,  and  weaken  him  in 
proportion  as  he  studies  in  this  mechanical  way.  But  tests  that 
are  applied  after  the  student  has  carried  his  drawing  as  far  as  he 
can  wdthout  testing,  are  not  mechanical  so  far  as  results  are  con- 
cerned, and,  if  they  show  the  drawing  which  was  thought  correct  to 
be  incorrect,  they  must  be  educational  and  valuable.  The  only  way 
to  produce  successful  results  is  to  make  the  student  independent, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  able  to  test  the  accuracy  of  his  work,  when 
at  the  point  where  without  the  tests  he  can  do  no  more.  In  form  he 
can  do  this  quite  perfectly,  and,  if  he  applies  tests  only  after  the 
drawing  has  been  carried  as  far  as  possible  without  them,  he  will 
advance  rapidly. 

In  light  and  shade  the  use  of  a  lens  of  about  fifteen  inches'  focus 
to  blur  the  effect,  is  a  mechanical  aid  which  enables  the  student  to 
Ijelieve  his  own  eyes,  and  see,  for  instance,  that  a  black  vase  may 
appear  lighter  than  a  gray  cast,  when  without  the  glass  he  would  fail 
to  see  it,  even  after  half  an  hour's  talk  by  the  teacher.  This  glass 
will  also  prove  a  valuable  aid  in  color  study.  It  may  be  mechanical, 
but  it  will  enable  the  student  to  see  effects  truly  and  finally  to  "feel  " 
the  sentiment  in  Nature.  It  will  do  this  much  more  quickly  than  the 
teacher,  who  is  unable  to  prove  himself  right  to  the  student  who  fails 
to  see  color  or  values  as  he  does. 

The  4-ight  use  of  tests,  such  as  the  slate,  pencil,  thread,  and  blur 
glass,  quickly  renders  the  use  of  all  tests  unnecessary  by  training  the 
eye  to  see  correctly.  For  instance,  the  use  of  the  blur  glass  for  a 
very  short  time  will  enable  the  student  to  realize  what  the  masses  are, 
and  to  see  simply  without  mechanical  aid  —  to  see,  in  fact,  much 


TESTS. 


51 


better  than  is  possible  with  such  help ;  for  the  eye  can  focus  to  give 
any  desired  amount  of  detail. 

If  the  artist  who  has  forgotten  his  first  struggles  in  drawing  and 
who  wishes  students  to  be  taught  to  feel,  will  take  a  class  of  average 
pupils  and  try  to  give  them  this  power  without  the  assistance  of  tests 
applied  by  the  students,  he  will  be  more  fortunate  than  most  artists 
who  teach,  if  he  does  not  decide  that  many  of  the  class  have  mis- 
taken their  vocations.  If  he  has  not  the  privilege  of  telling  them 
so,  or  if  he  fails  to  make  them  agree  with  him,  and  they  still  persist 
in  producing  work  which  is  completely  devoid,  not  only  of  sentiment, 
but  also  of  all  vestige  of  even  mechanical  truth,  the  chances  are  that 
he  will  be  very  glad  to  give  them  simple  aids  to  assist  them  to  see, 
and  will,  after  a  short  experience,  decide  that  these  aids  are  not  only 
necessary  but  wise. 

While  speaking  of  artists,  I  wish  to  refer  to  the  criticisms  some- 
times made  upon  the  cuts  and  sketches  of  many  of  the  drawing-books 
for  students'  use.  As  a  rule,  these  drawings  are  mechanical  and 
hard  when  they  might  be  more  artistic  ;  but  some  criticism  is  calcu- 
lated to  give  the  student  the  idea  that  artists'  sketches  do  not  give 
the  exact  geometrical  appearance,  and  that  therefore  it  is  useless  for 
the  art  pupil  to  draw  a  perfect  line,  for  instance,  an  ellipse  in  the 
representation  of  a  circle  seen  obliquely.  Such  ideas  more  than  any- 
thing else  are  calculated  to  produce  the  careless,  spotty,  and  mean- 
ingless sketches  which  are  made  by  students  who  are  searching  for 
handling,  technique,  and  freedom  as  the  all-important  ends,  when  they 
should  be  seriously  considering  how  what  is  before  them  appears. 

Artists  who  have  given  their  lives  to  acquiring  knowledge  may  be 
able  to  express  this  knowledge  so  simply  and  directly  that  their  work 
may  seem  careless  to  the  student  :  this  is  no  reason  for  the  con- 
clusion that  it  is  carelessly  done.  The  strokes  which  seem  acci- 
dental to  him,  express  effects  which  it  has  taken  the  artist  perhaps 
years  to  see,  and  which  the  student  cannot  see  without  similar  study. 
The  artist's  technique  is  free  because  by  long  study  he  has  become 
able  to  see  truly  at  a  glance,  and  his  only  thought  in  working  is  the 
idea  to  be  expressed,  and  not  the  handling  of  the  medium. 

The  pupil,  who,  after  much  effort  to  express  the  form  of  a  circle 
which  is  seen  obliquely,  can  only  obtain  a  line  which  is  as  irregular 


52 


FREE-HAND    DRAWING. 


as  a  brook,  ought  not  to  be  permitted  to  think  that  free  handling  of 
his  pencil  or  brush  will  hide  inability  to  draw,  or  give  a  substitute  for 
any  of  the  qualities  essential  to  good  work.  When  he  has  trained 
his  eye  and  hand  so  that  they  are  his  servants,  it  is  time  to  think  of 
handling;  but  at  this  time  it  will  not  be  necessary,  for  it  will  come 
without  thought  as  a  result  of  the  knowledge  and  experience  gained 
by  serious  study. 

The  student,  then,  should  not  shirk  careful  drawing  nor  the  most 
searching  study  of  detail.  It  is  useless  for  him  to  think  that  he  can 
produce  a  drawing  or  a  picture  which  has  the  parts  essential  to  it 
well  studied,  if  he  cannot  make  a  study  of  a  simple  group  of  still  life 
which  shall  represent  all  parts  of  the  subject,  and  every  detail,  in 
correct  drawing  and  values.  The  student  who  feels  that,  because  all 
the  detail  is  not  always  essential,  he  can  omit  any  before  he  becomes 
able  to  express  all  by  correct  drawing  and  values,  if  asked  so  to  do, 
is  wasting  his  time,  for  he  will  make  drawings  which  omit  the  essen- 
tials and  which  are  without  merit  of  any  kind. 

The  student  who  can  draw  a  perfect  ellipse  easily  will  have  no 
trouble  in  representing  lines  which  are  not  quite  circular ;  and,  under- 
standing that  a  sketch  which  is  artistic  must  give  a  sense  of  atmosphere, 
he  will  soon  discover  that  a  hard  and  rigid  line  is  not  satisfactory ; 
and,  being  able  to  draw  freely,  his  sketches  will  have  the  variation  of 
line  which  is  essential.  This  can  never  come  by  avoiding  serious 
study  of  form  and  effects. 

The  student  who  studies  for  love  of  art  and  not  for  fashion's 
sake  or  for  a  trade,  will  discover  that  popularity  is  not  a  sign  of 
merit,  and  that  financial  success  unfortunately  is  gained  frequently  I 
by  those  who  know  the  least,  while  serious,  honest  work  is  unnoticed 
by  the  public,  which  buys  what  is  simply  "  pretty  "  or  "  clever  "  or  what 
is  the  style,  without  regard  to  its  merit.  The  serious  student  must 
understand  that  the  sketches  which  were  made  so  rapidly  and  sell  so 
fast,  and  for  such  large  prices,  are  often  as  devoid  of  truth  as  it  is 
possible  for  them  to  be.  They  are  conventional  in  drawing,  false  in 
color  and  values,  but  attract  the  eye  because  they  are  "sketchy" 
and  interestingly  composed.  The  student  should  not  permit  them 
to  influence  him  to  work  for  such  false  and  cheap  results,  nor 
should   he   be   persuaded    against   his    judgment    by   the    popular 


TESTS. 


53 


verdict  into  accepting  this  class  of  work  as  good  and  worthy 
of  emulation. 

The  teacher,  then,  should  not  be  disturbed  by  the  criticism  of 
superficial  art  students  or  critics,  but  should  insist  that  the  students 
begin  to  study  seriously  with  only  the  idea  of  becoming  able  to 
represent  truly  just  what  is  before  them  :  after  this  they  must  depend 
upon  themselves  for  the  artistic  feeling  which  shall  decide  what  is 
essential,  and  when  changes  from  the  actual  appearance  will  produce 
a  more  satisfactory  impression  than  absolute  truth  of  appearance. 

This  power  to  feel  is  only  to  be  gained  by  depending  upon  the 
eye,  and  teachers  should  insist  that  all  work  be  begun  before  any 
mechanical  tests  are  applied.  At  first  pupils  will  not  be  able  to  see 
angles  and  foreshortening  at  all  correctly,  and  the  tests  when 
applied  will  show  the  pupils  the  errors  of  their  work.  But  after 
a  little  study  pupils  will  be  able  to  see  proportions  and  masses  more 
truly  than  they  can  measure  them  ;  and  if  they  are  led  to  think  of 
the  apparent  widths  and  heights  of  the  different  objects  of  the  group 
and  of  each  different  part  of  every  object,  they  will  be  surprised  to 
find  that  consideration  of  these  proportions  will  often  show  the  work 
which  their  measurements  have  produced,  to  be  incorrect. 

This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  pupils  are  allowed  to  think  of  the 
contour  of  the  object,  that  is,  of  the  line  that  they  draw  to  represent 
it,  instead  of  the  space  or  mass  that  the  line  encloses.  As  long 
as  pupils  work  in  this  way  they  will  never  feel  nor  learn  to  express 
the  sentiment  and  the  artistic  qualities  of  the  object  before  them. 

Excellent  practice  in  the  observation  that  leads  to  successful 
drawing  will  be  given  by  placing  any  simple  object  before  pupils  for 
a  few  seconds  and  asking  them  to  observe  and  remeniber  its  appear- 
ance and  to  draw  it  when  the  object  is  taken  away.  Practice  of  this 
nature  may  be  given  upon  the  slate  and  thus  the  pupils  may  test  the 
accuracy  of  their  perception  and  memory. 


CHAPTER   VI. 
FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE    OR    MODEL    DRAWING. 

The  great  differences  which  exist  between  the  drawings  from 
nature  made  by  artists  in  a  free-hand  way,  and  those  obtained  by 
following  the  rules  of  scientific  perspective  cause  the  perplexing 
questions  which  are  discussed  in  Chap.  VII.  These  questions 
must  be  considered  by  the  teacher,  for  even  the  youngest  pupils  who 
discover  that  parallel  retreating  lines  appear  to  vanish  will  wish  to 
know  why  vertical  lines  do  not  appear  to  vanish,  and  if  so  why  they 
are  not  so  represented.  In  the  same  way  other  points  will  be 
brought  before  the  teacher,  and  all  teachers  should  thus  understand 
the  subject,  at  least  so  as  to  be  able  to  apply  the  few  rules  given  in 
Chap.  VII. 

Teachers  should  not,  however,  discuss  the  different  theories  of 
Chap.  VII  with  young  pupils,  and  all  through  the  grammar  school 
these  questions  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  avoided.  It  will  not 
be  difficult  to  do  this,  for  when-  pupils  draw  from  single  objects  or 
groups  causing  small  visual  angles,  the  principal  difference  between 
what  the  eye  sees  and  the  drawing  that  the  artist  makes,  is  that  the 
artist  does  not  represent  the  convergence  of  vertical  lines. 

Teachers  will  obtain  the  best  results  by  beginning  the  study  of 
free-hand  drawing  by  the  use  of  the  slate,  which  in  a  short  time  will 
make  pupils  practically  familiar  with  the  perspective  principles 
which  are  valuable  to  the  artist.  >Vhen  pupils  have  used  the  slate 
some  time,  they  may  be  led  to  discover  and  state  the  principles 
which  govern  the  appearance  of  the  type  forms,  and  when  they  can 
draw  correctly,  applying  the  rules  to  test  drawings  of  single  objects 
and  groups  causing  small  visual  angles,  they  may  begin  to  draw  in- 
teriors and  subjects  causing  large  visual  angles.  But  even  in  this 
work  it  is  only  necessary  that  drawings  be  made  in  accord  with  the 
few  rules  given,  and  teachers  should  not  expect  pupils  to  generally  con- 
sider theories  upon  which  experienced  instructors  and  artists  are  often 
in  doubt;  the  rules  of  Chap.  VII  are  all  that  the  pupil  requires. 


FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE    OR   MODEL   DRAWING. 


55 


No  one  ever  drew  from  nature  correctly  simply  from  study  of 
theory,  and  time  spent  upon  theory,  whether  the  free-hand  or  the 
scientific,  is  wasted  if  some  practical  ability  to  draw  from  nature 
is  not  possessed.  Pupils  who  cannot  draw  approximately  correct 
representations  of  single  simple  objects  should  spend  their  time  in 
drawing  rather  than  in  study  of  theory ;  but  those  who  begin 
drawing  by  the  use  of  the  slate  may  quickly  understand  the  most 
important  rules  of  this  chapter,  for  the  slate  enables  pupils  to 
understand  what  would  otherwise  require  many  months  of  serious 
study.  Generally  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  by  giving  theory 
lessons  to  pupils  who  have  used  the  slate  and  can  draw  fairly  well, 
but  teachers  may  use  their  judgment  upon  this  point. 

Chap.  VII  shows  that  the  artist  makes  scientific  perspective  draw- 
ings only  when  obliged  to  do  so,  as  such  drawings  are  generally  very 
different  from  the  appearances  which  objects  present  to  the  eye ; 
and  teachers  must  decide  that  young  pupils  should  not  study 
scientific  perspective,  nor  any  pupils  who  wish  to  draw  free-hand, 
until  they  are  able  to  draw  from  simple  objects  correctly  and 
understand  model  drawing. 

Scientific  perspective  has  caused  much  harm  to  art,  for  false  rep- 
resentations of  prism  forms  are  generally  accepted  as  correct,  and 
the  art  student  who  discovers  that  the  subject  gives  drawings  very 
different  from  what  he  sees  often  wholly  neglects  perspective,  to  the 
great  detriment  of  his  work. 

Scientific  perspective  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  artist,  who 
often  finds  that  it  gives  the  most  satisfactory  representation  of  a 
geometric  subject.  It  is  also  valuable  to  the  architect  and  the  illus- 
trator, and  the  teacher  should  understand  its  principles.  But  when- 
ever it  is  taught,  the  fact  that  its  drawings  differ  from  what  the  eye 
sees,  and  are  distortions  unless  seen  from  the  station-point,  should 
be  carefully  explained. 

For  most  of  an  artist's  work  knowledge  of  model  drawing  is  not 
only  all  that  he  requires,  but  better  than  knowledge  of  scientific 
perspective.  The  principles  of  model  drawing  are  few  and  simple, 
and  even  the  young  pupil,  if  he  will  follow  the  directions  given,  will 
find  the  free-hand  perspective  interesting  and  easy  to  understand  ; 
for  there  are  no  planes,  lines,  and  points  to  be  imagined,  and  no 


56 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


difficult  processes  to  be  understood  and  carried  out.  There  is  no 
confusion  resulting  from  many  technical  names  and  operations. 
The  subject  may  be  presented  so  that  it  can  be  readily  understood, 
and  should  be  studied,  as  it  will  be  of  value  to  all. . 


LESSONS. 


The  following  lessons  are  to  be  given  in  the  public  schools  as 
indicated  in  the  "Outline  of  Lessons  for  Grammar  Grades."  They 
are  not  to  be  given  to  pupils  who  are  unable  to  draw  the  forms  by 
eye  alone  with  some  degree  of  correctness. 


Lesson  I.  —  Foreshortened  Planes  and  Lines. 

Cut  from  paper  a  circle  and  a  square  4"  in  diameter,  having  pro- 
jecting pieces  as  at  A  and  B.    Place  the  circle  upon  the  back  of  the 
slate  and  trace  its  real  shape.     Then  swing  the  circle 
cj"^    j  A      back  and  trace  its  foreshortened  appearance. 
^— ^  Draw  the  real  shape  and  the  foreshortened  appear- 

jr-^     I      anceof  the  square  in  the  same  way,  holding  the  slate 
■fll    )  vertical,  and  so  that  half  the  square  is  above  and  half 

■     below  the  level  of  the  eye. 

a  The  cards  are  to  be  held  against  the  slate  by  means 

of  the  projecting  pieces,  and  they  should  be  revolved 
III..    I      1 1 «     so  that  they  are  seen  edgewise  and  at  different  angles, 
di  I  ^  square  card  may  be  cut  so  as  to  revolve  from  an 

[^^^"1^ '     I      angle  instead  of  a  side. 

Similar  experiments  may  be  made  with  other  figures, 

and  the  entire  lesson  devoted  to  observation  of  the 

facts  which  illustrate  the  following  rule  : 

Rule  I.     Any  plane   or   line  which   is   not    at    right    angles    to 

a  line  from  its  centre  to  the  eye,  is  foreshortened,  and  does  not 

appear  its  true  dimensions. 

Note  i.  —  A  surface  is  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is 
seen  when  its  opposite  corners  are  equally  distant  from  the  eye.  A  line  is 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  seen  when  its  ends  are  equally 
distant  from  the  eye. 


FREE-HAND  PERSPECTIVE   OR  MODEL  DRAWING. 


57 


Note  2.  —  If  any  pupils  are  unable  to  trace  the  appearance  of  the 
square  while  holding  the  slate  on  the  level  of  the  eye,  they  may  observe 
the  appearance,  and  then  place  the  slate  in  the  usual  position  and  draw 
from  memory.  This  drawing  may  then  be  tested  by  placing  the  square 
at  the  back  of  the  slate,  and  holding  both  in  their  original  positions. 

Lesson  II.  —  Parallel  and  Equal  Lines  not  Foreshortened,  and  Vertical 

Lines. 

Draw  the  square  B  upon  the  slate,  as  explained  in  Lesson  I.  Its 
vertical  edges  appear  unequal,  and  illustrate  Rule  2. 

Rule  2.  The  nearer  of  two  parallel  and  equal  lines  which  are 
not  foreshortened  appears  the  longer. 

Place  the  drawing  in  the  book  to  illustrate  the  rule.  Drawings 
may  be  traced  from  the  slate  to  thin  paper,  and  then  transferred  to 
the  book  by  tracing  or  any  other  means. 

Unless  directions  to  the  contrary  are  given,  all  tracings  made  dur- 
ing these  lessons  are  to  be  transferred  to  the  drawing-book  to  illustrate 
the  rules  printed  therein. 

Trace  the  vertical  lines  of  a  cube  or  prism  placed  on  the  desk 
and  near  the  eye,  to  illustrate  the  following  rule.  (This  tracing  may 
be  omitted  in  the  book.) 

Rule  3.  Vertical  lines  appear  to  converge  when  they  are  above 
or  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  but  their  convergence  is  not  repre- 
sented, and  vertical  edges  are  always  represented  by  vertical  lines. 

Lesson  III.  —  The  Horizontal  Circle. 

Hold  the  circular  tablet  horizontally  and  at  the  level  of  the  eye. 
Then  draw  its  appearance  upon  the  slate. 

Place  the  tablet  horizontally  upon  a  block  or  upon     

books  at  the  back  of  the  desk,  and  trace  its  appear- 
ance upon  the  slate.  The  slate  should  rest  upon  the 
desk  and  be  held  at  the  proper  angle  by  the  left  hand. 

Place  the  tablet  upon  the  desk,  and  trace  its  appear-      ^_+_^^^ 
ance.  •^— J.      j 

The  distance  between  the  eye  and  the  object  and  » — 

between  the  eye  and  the  slate  should  b^  the  same  for  both  tracings. 


58  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

The  tracings  illustrate  the  following  rules  : 

Rule  4.  The  horizontal  circle  appears  a  horizontal  straight  line 
when  it  is  at  the  level  of  the  eye.  When  below  or  above  this  level, 
the  horizontal  circle  always  appears  an  ellipse  whose  long  axis  is  a 
horizontal  line. 

Rule  5.  The  farther  above  or  below  the  level  of  the  eye  a 
horizontal  circle  is  placed,  the  wider  it  appears.  The  short  axis  of 
the  ellipse  representing  a  horizontal  circle  changes  its  length  as  the 
circle  is  raised  or  lowered.  The  long  axis  is  always  represented  of 
the  same  length,  whatever  the  level  of  the  circle. 

Note.  —  The  level  of  the  circle  remaining  the  same,  its  apparent  width 
changes  with  the  distance  of  the  eye  from  the  circle. 

Lesson  IV.  —  Parallel  Lines. 

Place  a  2^"  square  tablet  at  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the 
desk  so  that  its  edges  are  parallel  to  those  of  the 
desk,  and  trace  its  appearance  upon  the  slate. 
Transfer  the  tracing  from  the  slate  to  the  book, 
by  the  use  of  tracing  paper  or  any  other  means,  to 
illustrate  the  following  rules,  which  may  be  verified  by  repeated 
experiments  with  any  sets  of  parallel  edges: 

Rule  6.  Parallel  retreating  edges  appear  to  vanish,  that  is,  con- 
verge toward  a  point. 

Note.  —  Retreating  edges  are  those  which  have  one  end  nearer  the 
eye  than  the  other.  Upon  sohds  the  farther  end  of  any. edge  is  a  point  of 
an  invisible  surface  of  the  object. 

Rule  7.  Parallel  edges  which  are  parallel  to  the  slate,  that  is, 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  they  are  seen,  do  not  appear 
to  converge,  and  any  parallel  edges  whose  ends  are  at  equal  dis- 
tances from  the  eye  appear  actually  parallel. 


FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE   OR  MODEL   DRAWING. 


59 


Lesson  V.  —  Parallel  Retreating  Horizontal  Lines. 

Place  a  large  book  horizontally  at  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the 
desk,  with  its  edges  parallel  to  those  of  the  desk  and  its  bound  edge 
towards  the  pupil.  Place  a  string  under  the  upper 
cover  of  the  book,  and  close  against  the  binding.  Hold 
the  left  end  of  the  string  in  the  right  hand,  so  that  it 
appears  to  cover  the  left  retreating  edge  of  the  book. 
At  the  same  time,  hold  the  right  end  of  the  string  with 
the  left  hand,  so  that  it  appears  to  cover  the  right  edge 
of  the  book.  When  both  edges  are  covered,  look  at 
the  point  where  the  two  parts  of  the  string  cross, 
and  see  that  it  is  on  the  level  of  the  eye.     This  illustrates  the  rule: 

Rule  8.  Parallel  retreating  horizontal  edges  appear  to  vanish  at 
the  level  of  the  eye. 

Trace  upon  the  slate  the  lines  of  two  walls  as  seen  when  looking 

.^v^  into  a  corner  of  the  schoolroom.    Trace  the  lines 

j^"^^f=-^ —  at  the  ceiling  and  those  at  the  top  and  bottom 

"■""^^  I[L=^==F'  =^=      of  the  blackboard.     This  tracing  and  that  of  the 

|l^I         I      =^_     square  and  book  below  the  eye  illustrate  the  fol- 

— '  lowing  rule  : 

Rule  9.  Horizontal  retreating  lines  above  the  eye  appear  to 
descend  or  vanish  downward,  and  horizontal  retreating  lines  below 
the  eye  appear  to  ascend  or  vanish  upward.  The  vanishing  point  of 
any  set  of  parallel  retreating  horizontal  lines  is  at  the  level  of  the  eye. 


Lesson  VL  —  The  Square, 

Place  a  square  tablet  at  the  middle  of  the  back  of  the  desk,  with 
its  edges  parallel  to  those  of  the  desk.  Two  of  the  edges  are  not 
foreshortened,  and  are  represented  by  parallel  horizontal  lines.  The 
other  edges  vanish  at  a  point  over  the  tablet,  and  on  the  level  of  the  eye. 

Now  place  the  tablet  so  that  its  edges  are  not  parallel  to  those  of 
the  desk,  and  trace  its  appearance  on  the  slate.  None  of  the  edges 
appear  horizontal,  and  when  the  lines  of  the  trac- 
ing are  continued  as  far  as  the  slate  will  allow, 
the  fact  that  they  converge  will  be  readily  seen, 
and  the  drawing  illustrates  the  following  rule : 


6o  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

Rule  10.  When  one  line  of  a  right  angle  vanishes  toward  the 
right,  the  other  line  vanishes  toward  the  left. 

The  drawing  also  shows  that  the  edges  appear  of  unequal  length, 
and  make  unequal  angles  with  a  horizontal  line,  and  illustrates  the 
following  rule : 

Rule  II.  When  two  sides  of  a  square  retreat  at  unequal  angles, 
the  one  which  is  more  nearly  parallel  to  the  picture  plane  (the  slate) 
appears  the  longer,  and  more  nearly  horizontal. 

Now  turn  the  square  so  that  its  edges  are  at  equal  angles  with  the 

edges  of  the  desk,  and  trace  its  edges  and  its  diagonals.     The  two 

lower  lines  of  the  drawing  ab  and  be  make 

equal  angles  with  the  edge  of  the  slate,  and 

also  the  two  upper  lines  cd  and  da.,  but  the 

angles  of  the  upper  lines  are  not  the  same  as 

those  of  the  lower  lines.     One  diagonal  of  the 

square  is  represented  by  a  vertical  line,  and 

the  other  by  a  horizontal  line.     This  drawing  illustrates  the  following 

rules  : 

Rule  12.  When  the  two  lines  of  a  horizontal  right  angle  extend 
to  right  and  left  at  equal  angles  with  the  picture  plane,  they  are 
represented  by  lines  which  make  equal  angles  with  a  horizontal  line. 
Rule  13.  When  the  sides  of  a  horizontal  square  are  at  equal 
angles  with  the  picture  plane,  the  nearer  ones  appear  of  equal  length, 
'and  at  equal  angles  with  a  horizontal  line,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
the  farther  sides.  One  diagonal  of  the  square  appears  a  horizontal 
line,  and  the  other  appears  a  vertical  line. 

Conversely :  When  one  diagonal  of  a  horizontal  square  appears 
vertical,  the  other  appears  horizontal,  and  the  nearer  and  farther 
sides  appear  at  respectively  equal  angles  with  a  horizontal  line. 

Lesson  VII.  —  The  Appearance  of  Equal  Spaces  on  Any  Line. 

Cut  from  paper  a  square  of  three  inches,  and  draw  its  diagonals. 
Place  this  square  horizontally  at  the  middle  of  the 
back  of  the  desk,  with  its  edges  parallel  to  those  of     j 
the  desk,   and  then   trace    its    appearance   and   its 
diagonals  upon  the  slate. 


FREE-HAND  PERSPECTIVE   OR  MODEL   DRAWING.        6 1 

Note.  —  The  diagonals  of  a  square  bisect  each  other  and  give  the 
centre  of  the  square. 

Compare  the  distance  from  the  nearer  end  (i)  of  either  diagonal 
to  the  centre  of  the  square  (2)  with  that  from  the  centre  of  the 
square  to  the  farther  end  of  the  diagonal  (3),  for  an  illustration  of 
the  following  rule  : 

Rule  14.  Equal  distances  on  any  retreating  line  appear  unequal, 
the  nearer  of  any  two  appearing  the  longer. 

Transfer  the  tracing  from  the  slate  to  the  book. 

Lesson  VIII.  —  The  Triangle. 

Draw  upon  an  equilateral  triangular  tablet  a  line  from  an  angle  to 
the  centre  of  the  opposite  side.     (This  line  is  called  an  altitude.) 

Connect  the  triangular  tablet  with  the  square 
tablet,  and  place  them  on  the  desk  so  that  the 
base  of  the  triangle  is  foreshortened,  and  its  alti- 
tude is  vertical.  Trace  the  triangle  and  its  alti- 
tude upon  the  slate.  The  tracing  illustrates  the 
fact  that  the  nearer  half  of  a  receding  line  appears  longer  than  the 
farther  half  (see  Rule  14),  and  also  the  following  rule  : 

Rule  15*  The  upper  angle  of  a  vertical  isosceles  or  equilateral 
triangle,  whose  base  is  horizontal,  appears  in  a  vertical  line  erected 
at  the  perspective  centre  of  the  base. 

Lesson  IX.  —  The  Prism. 

Connect  two  square  tablets  by  a  rod  to  represent  a  cube,  and  hold 
the  object  so  that  one  tablet  only  is  visible,  and  discover  that  it  must 
appear  its  real  shape,  A.     This  illustrates  the  following  rule  : 

Rule  16.  When  one  face  only  of  a  prism  is  visible,  it  appears 
its  real  shape. 

Place  the  cube  represented  by  tablets  in  the  middle  of  the  back  of 
the  desk,  and  trace  its  appearance.  First,  when  two  faces  only  of 
the  solid  would  be  visible,  B,  and  second,  when  three  faces  would 
be  seen,  C.     These  tracings  illustrate  the  following  rule : 


62 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


(a 

Sa-^ 

y^ 

1 

'^ 

L> 

0 

1 

B 


D 


Rule  17.  When  two  or  more  faces  of  a  cube  are  seen,  none  of 
them  can  appear  their  real  shapes. 

Place  the  cubical  form  on  the  desk,  with  the  tablets  vertical,  and 
one  of  them  seen  edgewise,  Z>,  and  discover  that  the  other  tablet  does 
not  appear  a  straight  line.     This  illustrates  the  following  rule  : 

Rule  18.  Only  one  end  of  a  prism  can  appear  a  straight  line  at 
any  one  time. 


Lesson  X.  —  The  Cylinder. 

Connect  two  circular  tablets  by  a  2  ^4  "  stick,  to 

represent  the  cylinder.     Hold  the  object  so  that  one 

end  only  is  visible,  and  see  that  it  appears  a  circle. 
(See  Rule  16.) 

Place  the  object  on  the  desk,  so  that  its  axis  is 
horizontal  but  appears  a  vertical  line,  and  trace  its 
appearance.  The  tracing  illustrates  the  following 
rule : 

Rule  19.  When  an  end  and  the  curved  surface 
of  a  cylinder  are  seen  at  the  same  time,  the  end  must 
appear  an  ellipse. 

Place  the  object  horizontally,  and  so  that  one 
end  appears  a  vertical  line,  and  trace  to  illustrate 
the  following  rule  : 

Rule  20.  When  one  end  of  a  cylinder  appears 
a  straight  line,  the  other  appears  an  ellipse. 


FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE   OR   MODEL   DRAWING.        63 

Place  the  object  upright  on  the  desk,  and  trace 
its  ends  and  axis.  Draw  the  long  diameters  of  the 
ellipses,  and  discover  that  they  are  at  right  angles  to 
the  axis  of  the  cylinder.  This  illustrates  the  follow- 
ing rules  : 

Rule  21.  The  bases  of  a  vertical  cylinder  appear 
horizontal  ellipses.  The  nearer  base  always  appears 
the  narrower  ellipse. 

Place  the  object  with  its  axis  horizontal  and  at  an  angle,  so  that 
the  surfaces  of  both  tablets  are  visible.  Trace 
the  tablets  and  the  rod,  and  then  draw  the  long 
diameters  of  the  ellipses,  and  discover  that  they 
r^^^T^^^^i^  y  1  ^^^  ^^  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  cylindrical 
form.  The  axes  of  the  ellipses  are  inclined,  and 
the  drawing  illustrates  the  following  rules : 

Rule  22.  The  bases  of  a  cylinder  appear 
ellipses  whose  long  diameters  are  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the 
cylinder,  the  nearer  base  appearing  the  narrower  ellipse. 

Note. — The  farther  end  may  appear  narrower  than  the  nearer,  but  must 
always  appear  proportionally  a  wider  ellipse  than  the  nearer  end. 

Rule  23.  Vertical  foreshortened  circles  below  or  above  the  level 
of  the  eye  appear  ellipses  whose  axes  are  not  vertical  lines. 

Rule  24.  The  long  axis  of  an  ellipse  representing  a  vertical 
circle  below  or  above  the  level  of  the  eye  is  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  of  a  cylinder  of  which  the  circle  is  an  end. 

Rule  25.  The  elements  of  the  cylinder  appear  to  converge  in 
the  direction  of  the  invisible  end.  This  convergence  is  not  repre- 
sented when  the  cylinder  is  vertical. 

Note  i.  —  Less  than  half  the  curved  surface  of  the  cylinder  is  visible 
at  any  one  time. 

Note  2.  —  The  elements  of  the  cyHnder  appear  tangent  to  the  bases  and 
must  always  be  represented  by  straight  lines  tangent  to  the  ellipses  which 
represent  the  bases.  When  the  elements  converge,  the  tangent  points  are 
not  in  the  long  axes  of  the  ellipses.  See  illustration  opposite  Rule  19,  in 
which  if  a  straight  line  tangent  to  the  ellipses  be  drawn,  the  tangent  points 
will  be  found  above  the  long  axes  of  the  ellipses. 


64 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Lesson  XI.  —  The  Cone. 


Hold  the  cone  so  that  its  axis  is  directed  to- 


^^ — 1       Z*^   wards  the  eye 
''^^^^^       \^    Hold  the  cone 


and  the  cone  appears  a  circle, 
so  that  its  base  appears  a  straight 
line,  and  it  appears  a  triangle. 


Place  a  circular  tablet  having  a  rod  attached,  to 
represent  the  axis  of  the  cone,  so  that  the  axis  is 
first  vertical,  and  second  inclined.  Trace  both 
positions  of  the  object,  and  discover  that  the 
appearance  of  the  circle  is  the  same  as  in  the  case 
of  the  cylinder.     The  tracings  illustrate  the  rule. 

Rule  26.  When  the  base  of  the  cone  appears 
an  ellipse,  the  long  axis  of  the  ellipse  is  perpendic- 
ular to  the  axis  of  the  cone. 


Note  i.  —  More  than  half  the  curved  surface  of  the  cone  will  be 
seen  when  the  vertex  is  nearer  the  eye  than  the.  base,  and  less  than  half 
will  be  seen  when  the  base  is  nearer  the  eye  than  the  vertex.  The 
visible  curved  surface  of  the  cone  may  range  from  all  to  none.  See 
illustrations  on  p.  77. 

Note  2. — The  contour  elements  of  the  cone  are  represented  by 
straight  lines  tangent  to  the  ellipse  which  represents  the  base,  and  the 
points  of  tangency  are  not  in  the  long  axis  of  this  ellipse.  See 
illustrations  on  p.  ']']. 


Lesson  XII,  —  The  Regular  Hexagon. 

In  this  figure  the  opposite  sides  are  parallel  and 

equal.      The  long   diagonal  A  D  is  parallel    to   the 

sides  B  C  and  £  J%  and  it  is  divided  into  four  equal 

parts  by  the  short  diagonals  B  F  and  C  E,  and  by  the 

long  diagonal  B  E  ox  C  F. 

The   perspective   drawing  of   this   figure  will   be  corrected   by 

giving  the  proper  vanishing  to  the  different  sets  of  parallel  lines, 

and  by  making  the   divisions  on  the    diagonal  A  D  perspectively 

equal. 


FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE   OR  MODEL   DRAWING. 


65 


f       Draw  the  long  and  short  diagonals  upon  a  large  hexagonal  tablet. 
Place  this  tablet  in  a  horizontal  or 
vertical    position,    and    then    trace    ^- 
upon  the  slate  its  appearance   and 
the  lines  upon  it.     The  tracing  illus- 
trates the  following  rule  : 

Rule  27.     In  a  correct  drawing  of  the  regular  hexa- 
gon, any  long  diagonal,   when  intersected  by  a  long 
diagonal  and  two  short  diagonals,  will  be  divided  into  four  equal 
parts. 


Lesson  XIII.  —  The   Centre   of   the   Ellipse   does   not  Represent   the 
Centre  of  the  Circle.     {For  teachers  only.) 

Cut  from  paper  a  square  of  three  inches,  after  having  inscribed  a 
circle  in  the  square.  Draw  the  diameters  of  the  square  and  then 
place  the  square  horizontally  at  the  middle  of  the 
back  of  the  desk,  with  its  edges  parallel  to  those  of 
the  desk.  Trace  the  square,  its  diameters,  and  the 
inscribed  circle,  upon  the  slate.  The  circle  appears 
an  ellipse,  and  as  the  long  axis  of  an  ellipse  bisects  the  short,  it  is 
evident  that  it  must  come  below  the  centre  of  the  square,  and  we 
discover  that  the  centre  of  the  ellipse  does  not  represent  the  centre 
of  the  circle,  and  that  the  diameter  of  the  circle  appears  shorter  than 
a  chord  of  the  circle. 


Lesson  XIV.  —  Concentric  Circles. 

Cut  a  4"  square  from  practice  paper,  and  draw  the  diagonals. 
With  the  centre  of  the  square  as  centre,  draw  two  concentric  circles, 
4"  and  2"  in  diameter. 

Place  the  card  horizontally  upon  the  desk,  as 
illustrated,  and  trace  its  appearance  upon  the 
slate,  together  with  all  the  lines  drawn  upon  it. 

Draw  the  vertical  line  which  is  the  short  axis 
of  both  ellipses.     Bisect  the  short  axis  of  the  outer  ellipse,  and  draw 
the  long  axis  A  of  this  eUipse.     Bisect  the  short  axis  of  the  inner 
ellipse,  and  draw  its  long  axis  JB.     It  will  be  seen  that  the  long  axes 


><\ 

/    zy^ 

-^^^^          A 

'feS 

^^4    X 

^s>^ 

66  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

are  parallel,  but  do  not  coincide,  and  that  both  are  in  front  of  the 
point  which  represents  the  centre  of  the  circles. 

Each  diameter  of  the  larger  circle  is  divided  into  four  equal 
parts.  The  four  equal  spaces  on  the  diameter  which  appears  the 
short  axis  appear  unequal  according  to  Rule  14.  The  diameter 
which  is  parallel  to  the  long  axes  of  the  ellipses  has  four  equal 
spaces  upon  it,  and  they  appear  equal.  This  diameter  is  behind  the 
long  axes,  but  generally  a  very  short  distance,  and  in  practice,  if  the 
distance  z,  2  between  the  ellipses  measured  on  the  long  axis  is  one- 
fourth  of  the  entire  long  axis,  then  the  distance  between  the  ellipses 
measured  on  the  short  axis  must  be  a  perspective  fourth  of  the 
entire  short  axis.     This  illustrates  the  rule: 

Rule  28.  Foreshortened  concentric  circles  appear  ellipses  whose 
short  axes  coincide.  The  distance  between  the  ellipses  on  the  short 
axis  is  perspectively  the  same  proportion  of  the  entire  short  axis,  as 
the  distance  between  the  ellipses  measured  on  the  long  axis,  is  geo- 
metrically of  the  entire  long  axis. 

Lesson  XV.  —  Vase  Forms. 

Place  a  sphere  on  the  desk  below  the  eye,  and 
having  marked  the  highest  point  upon  it  A,  see  that 
this  point  does  not  appear  in  the  circle  which  defines 
the  sphere,  but  comes  below  or  inside  this  circle,  a 
distance  which  varies  with  the  distance  of  the  sphere 
from  and  below  the  eye. 
Place  the  modeled  sphere,  from  which  a  small  section  has  been 
cut,  so  that  the  section  is  horizontal  and  at  the  top,  and  trace  the 
appearance  of  the  object  upon  the  slate.  Indicate 
the  elements  of  a  cylinder  or  cone  tangent  to  the 
ellipse  which  represents  the  section. 

The  circular  section  appears  an  ellipse,  and 
appears  inside  the  circle  which  defines  the  sphere. 
This  illustrates  the  following  rule  : 

Rule  29.  In  vase  forms,  when  a  cylindrical  or  conical  body 
intersects  a  larger  curved  body  or  portion  of  convex  form,  and  the 
line  of  intersection  is  visible  in  any  position  of  the  object,  the  contour 


FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE   OR  MODEL   DRAWING. 


67 


lines  of  the  smaller  part  extend  inside  the  contour  of  the  larger  part : 
thus  the  extremities  of  the  long  axis  of  the  ellipse  which  represents 
the  intersection  are  not  in  the  contour  of  the  larger  part. 


Lesson  XVI.  —  Frames. 

In  the  frames  are  found  regular  concentric  polygons  with  parallel 
sides,  the  angles  of  the  inner  polygons  being  in  straight  lines  con- 
necting the  angles  of  the  outer  polygon  with  its  centre.  In  polygons 
having  an  even  number  of  sides,  the  lines  containing  the  angles  of 
the  polygons  form  diagonals  of  the  figures,  as  in  the  square. 

In  polygons  having  an  odd  number  of  sides,  the  lines  containing 
the  angles  of  the  polygon  are  perpendicular  to  the  sides  opposite  the 
angles,  as  in  the  triangle.  The  figures  illustrate  the  above  facts  and 
the  rule. 

Draw  upon  large  triangular  and  square  tablets  the  lines  shown 
in  Figs.  A  and  B.     Place  the  tablets  horizontally  on  the  desk,  or 


support  them  vertically,  and  trace  upon  the  slate  the  appearance  of 
their  edges  and  all  the  lines  drawn  upon  them.  The  tracings  illus- 
trate Rule  30. 

Rule  30.  In  representing  the  regular  frames,  the  angles  of  the 
inner  figure  must  be  in  straight  lines  passing  from  the  angles  of  the 
outer  figure  to  the  centre.  These  lines  are  altitudes  or  diagonals  of 
the  polygons. 

Note.  —  The  most  important  principles  of  the  subject  are  stated  briefly 
and  simply  in  this  chapter  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  of  elementary  work. 
Teachers  of  art  schools  and  advanced  classes  will  find  the  subject  treated 
at  greater  length,  and  in  a  way  suited  to  the  requirements  of  advanced 
students,  in  the  book,  "  Free-hand  Drawing.,  Light  and  Shade,  and  Free- 
hand Perspective,'''  by  Anson  K.  Cross. 


68        FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE   OR    MODEL   DRAWING. 


DRAWINGS    ILLUSTRATING    THE    RULES. 

The  principles  governing  the  appearance  of  geometric  forms  have 
been  illustrated  by  the  use  of  tablets.  The  following  drawings  rep- 
resent both  tablets  and  solid  objects  in  different  positions,  which 
illustrate  the  rules. 

The  first  drawings  represent  tablets  and  objects  when  placed  upon 
the  pupils'  desks.  When  objects  are  thus  placed  perspective  effects 
are  often  unpleasant ;  therefore  after  the  first  experiments  the  objects 
should  be  raised  from  the  desk.  They  should  not  be  placed  so  as  to 
be  foreshortened  less  than  the  first  objects  represented  below. 

The  drawings  are  reproductions  of  pen  sketches.  Some  are 
slightly  accented,  but  they  are  not  given  for  examples  of  handling, 
for  which  the  sketches  of  the  pupils'  drawing  books  must  be  used. 

The  figures  in  which  light  lines  are  found  illustrate  the  appear- 
ance which  drawings  should  have  before  any  lines  have  been  erased. 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


69 


70       FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE   OR   MODEL  DRAWING. 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


71 


72        FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE    OR   MODEL   DRAWING. 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


73 


K>s 


74         FREE-HAND   PERSPECTIVE    OR  MODEL   DRAWING. 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


75 


76        FREE-HAND  PERSPECTIVE   OR  MODEL   DRAWING. 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


77 


CHAPTER   VII. 

SCIENTIFIC    PERSPECTIVE    AND    MODEL    DRAWING. 

( This  chapter  is  for  teachers  of  drawing  and  advanced  art  students^ 

A  PERSPECTIVE  is  generally  understood  to  be  a  scientific  perspec- 
tive made  upon  a  vertical  picture  plane  placed  between  the  eye  of 
the  spectator  and  the  subject  to  be  represented.  Drawings  of  this 
nature  are  generally  made  upon  paper  by  applying  the  principles  of 
perspective.  To  make  such  a  drawing  it  is  necessary  to  know  the 
forms,  dimensions,  and  positions  of  the  objects,  to  know  the  position 
of  the  picture  plane  on  which  they  are  to  be  represented,  and  also 
the  position  of  the  eye  of  the  spectator,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
fixed  at  one  point  called  the  station-pomt.  Scientific  perspective  is 
as  exact  as  geometry,  —  in  fact  it  is  a  branch  of  geometry,  and  its 
principles  may  be  applied  upon  paper  to  a  drawing  of  any  subject, 
so  exact  that  if  the  paper  could  be  rendered  transparent,  and  sus- 
pended vertically  in  the  position  of  the  picture  plane,  every  line 
upon  it  would  be  found  to  appear  to  coincide  with  the  line  of  the 
object  which  it  represents  when  the  eye  is  at  the  station-point.  The 
drawing  is,  in  fact,  just  what  would  be  given  by  tracing  upon  a 
vertical* sheet  of  glass  placed  in  front  of  the  group,  and  in  the  given 
position  of  the  assumed  picture  plane,  lines  to  cover  each  line  or 
edge  of  the  subject  as  seen  through  the  glass  and  from  the  fixed 
point  called  the  station-point. 

Perspective  drawings  may  be  made  upon  cylindrical  surfaces,  but 
the  drawing  generally  made  is  supposed  to  be  upon  a  vertical  picture 
plane.  The  student  may  readily  produce  a  drawing  to  illustrate  the 
nature  of  a  plane  perspective  by  fixing  the  eye  at  one  point  in  front 
of  a  window,  and  then  tracing  upon  the  window  lines  to  cover  the 
lines  of  whatever  may  be  seen  through  the  window. 

Artists  and  illustrators  have  made  perspective  drawings  for  many 
hundred  years;  and  these  drawings  have  quite  generally  been  satis- 
factory when    geometric  forms  have  been  represented  ;  but  in  the 


) 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE  AND  MODEL   DRAWING. 


79 


highest  art,  which  represents  the  human  figure,  artists  have  not  made 
scientific  perspective  drawings,  but  have  drawn  instead  by  eye  the 
actual  appearance  of  each  figure  in  the  subject,  and  thus  their  draw- 
ings do  not  require  to  be  seen  from  one  fixed  point  in  order  that  they 
may  represent  the  appearance  of  all  the  figures. 

In  order  to  understand  the  difference  between  a  scientific  perspec- 
tive and  the  drawing  which  an  artist  makes  of  a  figure  or  other  sub- 
ject not  architectural,  we  must  determine  first  what  the  eye  sees, 
and  second  any  points  of  difference  that  may  exist  between  what  the 
eye  sees  and  a  plane  perspective  drawing. 

The  eye  contains  a  lens  whose  action  is  the  same  as  that  of  the 
lens  found  in  a  camera.     The  rays  of  light  from  any  object  to  the 

A 


A  Top  View. 


eye  pass  through  its  lens  and  are  focussed  by  it  upon  the  sensitive 
nerves  at  the  back  of  the  eye.  The  surface  of  the  eye  which  re- 
ceives the  light  transmitted  by  the  lens  is  spherical,  and  the  rays  of 
light  pass  through  the  lens  and  strike  upon  the  sensitive  retina  in  a 
direction  practically  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  retina 
(Fig.  17). 

Most  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  eye  is  sensitive  to  the  rays  of 
light,  and  so  the  eye  sees  a  very  wide  field  of  view.  If  the  eye  is 
fixed  upon  any  object  directly  in  front  of  the  spectator,  objects 
above,  below,  to  the  left,  and  to  the  right  will  be  seen  at  one  time, 
but  all  very  indistinctly  ;  and  though  the  spectator  may  be  conscious 
of  seeing  objects  at  almost  the  extreme  right  and  left  of  his  position, 
they  will  be  seen  so  indistinctly  that  they  will  not  be  recognized. 
A  very  small  space  is  seen  distinctly  at  any  one  time.    Thus,  in  read- 


8o  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

ing  this  book,  it  will  be  impossible  to  read  a  word  at  the  left  of  any 
line  and  distinguish  a  letter  at  the  right  of  the  line,  and  only  a  few 
letters  can  be  read  w^ithout  motion  of  the  eye.  The  field  of  distinct 
vision  is  thus  confined  to  a  very  small  visual  angle.  By  this  is 
meant  that  the  rays  which  come  from  the  extreme  points  of  what 
is  clearly  seen  form  very  small  angles  with  each  other,  and  the  eye 
cannot  bring  to  a  focus  upon  the  retina  all  the  rays  from  any  object 
which  causes  large  visual  angles. 

The  rays  coming  to  the  eye  from  any  object  form  a  conical  body 
whose  vertex  is  in  the  lens  of  the  eye  ;  passing  through  the  lens  the 
rays  form  a  conical  body  whose  vertex  is  also  in  the  lens.  The 
central  visual  ray,  or  the  axis  of  both  the  cones,  is  perpendicular  to 
the  surface  of  the  retina  which  receives  it  ;  and  the  whole  cone  of 
rays  which  gives  the  image  of  the  object  is  intersected  by  the  curved 
surface  of  the  retina  practically  at  right  angles  to  all  the  rays.  The 
proportions  which  any  object  appears  to  have  are  thus  dependent 
upon  the  angles  between  the  visual  rays,  and  the  arc  which  measures 
the  angle  between  any  two  rays,  as  those  from  A  and  B,  Fig.  17,  will 
nearly  coincide  with  the  surface  of  the  retina. 

All  objects  are  seen  by  means  of  the  images  which  they  produce 
upon  the  retina;  but  any  one  is  clearly  seen  only  when  the  eye  is 
directed  to  it,  and  thus  we  must  accept  this  distinct  image  formed  in 
the  eye  as  the  true  picture,  —  that  is,  as  the  true  appearance  of- the 
object. 

The  retina  has  the  general  shape  of  a  sphere,  but  the  part  that 
receives  the  rays  which  form  a  sharp  image  is  so  small  that  its 
curvature  is  very  slight,  and  the  image  upon  it  is  practically  the 
same  as  that  which  would  be  given  upon  a  plane  surface  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  of  visual  rays  ;  and  we  see  that  for  all 
practical  purposes  we  may  speak  of  a  true  picture,  meaning  one 
which  is  similar  in  its  form  to  the  image  of  the  eye,  as  produced  by 
intersecting  the  cone  of  visual  rays  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
central  ray. 

By  appearance  we  mean,  then,  the  image  which  any  object  produces 
upon  the  retina,  and  a  picture  which  represents  this  appearance 
is  a  true  picture.  By  represents  is  meant  a  picture  which  is  similar, 
geometrically,  to  the  image,  so  that  the  picture  will  cause  in  the  eye 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE  AND  MODEL   DRAWING.       8 1 

the  same  image  that  the  object  would  produce  if  the  object  were 
seen  instead  of  its  true  picture. 

The  limit  to  the  visual  angle  within  which  clear  vision  is  possible 
is  very  small,  and  to  see  almost  any  object  clearly  the  eye  moves  so 
as  to  be  directed  to  its  different  parts  ;  but  any  object  which  does 
not  create  visual  angles  greater  than  30°  will  be  so  pictured  upon 
the  retina  that  when  its  central  part  is  clearly  seen  the  image  is  but 
slightly  different  from  that  which  is  given  by  intersecting  the  cone 
of  visual  rays  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  central  visual  ray 
instead  of  by  the  curved  surface  of  the  eye. 

We  must  generally  draw  upon  paper  or  some  other  flat  surface, 
and  the  problem  for  the  artist  is  to  produce  upon  a  plane  a  drawing 
which  shall  cause  in  the  eye  the  nearest  possible  approach  to  the 
image  on  the  curved  surface  of  the  eye'  which  is  produced  by  the 
object  itself. 

Seeing  is  a  matter  of  education  principally,  and  it  is  immaterial 
what  the  image  in  the  eye  actually  is  in  regard  to  the  relations  of  its 
details,  for  the  mind  reads  the  images  by  referring  to  the  facts 
remembered  concerning  previous  and  similar  images.  Authorities 
on  perspective  state  that  straight  lines  appear  curved,  —  that  is, 
cause  curved  images  in  the  eye  ;  but  it  is  of  no  consequence  to  the 
artist  whether  the  images  are  curved  or  not,  for  admitting  that  the 
images  are  curved,  the  eyes  of  all  read  the  images  as  those  of 
straight  lines,  the  mind  supplying  the  knowledge  of  straightness 
whenever  the  images  are  produced  by  lines  which  are  known  to  be 
straight.  When  curved  images  in  the  eye  are  produced  by  lines 
which  are  not  known  to  be  straight,  the  mind  receives  the  impression 
of  curved  lines  in  nature,  and  the  artist  would  represent  the  Ikies 
by  curved  lines  ;  but  if  he  represents  by  curved  lines  lines  which  the 
mind  knows  to  be  straight,  his  drawing  will  not  create  the  same 
impression  as  the  image  in  the  eye  caused  by  the  actual  lines  ;  for  if 
the  images  of  the  eye  are  curved  the  mind  does  not  know  it  and 
reads  them  always  as  straight.  The  eye  is  simply  a  mechanical 
instrument,  and  we  see  much  more  through  the  mind  than  by  study 
of  the  proportions  of  the  image  in  the  eye  as  if  it  were  a  drawing 
or  a  map. 

The  problem  for  the  artist  is,  then,  to  produce  a  drawing  which 


82  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

shall,  as  nearly  as  possible,  cause  in  the  eye  the  same  visual  angles 
as  the  object,  and  which  shall  at  the  same  time  cause  the  mind  to 
bring  forward,  as  far  as  possible,  the  same  ideas  concerning  the 
object  that  the  object  represented  would  create ;  and  this  drawing 
must  be  made  upon  a  plane  surface. 

Having  decided  that  the  image  in  the  eye  —  the  appearance  of  the 
object  —  must  be  considered  a  true  picture  of  the  object,  and  that 
it  is  practically  what  is  given  by  intersecting  the  visual  rays  by  a 
plane  perpendicular  to  them,  —  that  is,  to  the  central  ray  to  any 
object,  we  will  study  the  drawings  which  are  given  upon  the  vertical 
picture  plane,  generally  used  in  scientific  perspective,  to  discover 
any  points  of  diiference  between  them  and  what  the  eye  sees.  The 
illustrations  used  will  generally  be  from  photographs,  for  the  camera 
gives  an  exact  perspective  drawing  in  which  the  negative  corresponds 
to  the  picture  plane  and  the  centre  of  the  lens  to  the  station-point. 

All  the  illustrations  of  this  chapter,  except  those  in  outline,  are 
reproduced  directly  from  photographs.  Photographs  which  represent 
objects  causing  visual  angles  greater  than  30°  are  always  distor- 
tions, and  when  the  visual  angles  represented  are  as  large  as  60° 
or  90°  the  distortions  are  generally  very  noticeable  and  very 
unpleasant.  Photographs  taken  with  lenses  which  include  angles 
of  from  60°  to  90°  are  as  common  as  those  which  represent 
smaller  angles  and  thus  give  more  nearly  what  the  eye  sees.  The 
photographs  from  which  the  illustrations  of  this  chapter  are  taken  do 
not  distort  more  than  the  photographs  and  illustrations  which  are 
always  to  be  found  in  the  common  representations  of  interiors  and 
exteriors,  and  often  such  representations  present  greater  distortions 
than  these  illustrations. 

The  illustrations  of  this  chapter  are  smaller  than  the  original 
photographs,  and  thus  they  should  be  seen  from  a  shorter  distance 
than  the  photographs.  But  still  they  are  not  more  distorted  than 
many  drawings  which  are  made  for  illustrations  by  those  who  make 
scientific  perspective  drawings  instead  of  drawing  by  eye,  and  by 
those  who  draw  from  nature  with  the  false  ideas  of  the  appearance 
of  form  which  are  given  by  study  of  scientific  perspective  without 
that  of  the  free-hand  perspective  ;  and  often  illustrative  drawings 
are  more  distorted  than  those  of  this  chapter. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND   MODEL   DRAWING. 


83 


Fig.  18  is  from  a  photograph  of  a  sphere  which  was  placed  directly 
below  the  camera  and  upon  a  horizontal  surface.  The  camera  was 
horizontal,    so    the    negative  —  that    is,    the    picture    plane  —  was 


Fig.  18.     Perspective  of  a  Sphere.     From  Photograph. 

vertical.  The  picture  of  the  sphere  is  seen  to  be  a  vertical  ellipse, 
and  it  does  not  create  a  satisfactory  impression  of  the  round  object. 
Fig.  19  is  a  side  view  representing  the  sphere,  the  eye,  and  a 
vertical  picture  plane  touching  the  sphere.  The  visual  rays  from 
the  sphere  to  the  eye  form  a  cone,  and  Fig.  19  shows  that  this  cone 
of  rays  is  intersected  obliquely  by  the  vertical  picture  plane.  The 
cone  is  a  circular  cone,  —  that  is,  if  it  is  cut  by  a  plane  at  right 
angles  to  its  axis  the  sections  will  be  a  circle ;  and  by  geometry  we 


84 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


Position   •  oj^-  rke  ■ 

Pic  fore  -  PUne  •  wki<K        , 

^luej  .  d  •distor'te<t  ■  picfor^e 
v^of"-  tie  •  JpKcfe 


Fig.  19.     A  Side  View. 


know  that  if  it  is  cut  by  a  plane  not  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  as  is 
the  picture  plane  in  the  figure,  the  section  will  be  an  ellipse.  This 
elliptical  section  is  the  picture  of  the  sphere  on  the  vertical  picture 
plane,  and  the  ellipse  covers  the  sphere  when  the  eye  is  at  the  station- 
point, —  that  is,  the  ellipse 


appears  a  circle  whose 
image  coincides  with  the 
circular  image  produced 
in  the  eye  by  the  sphere. 
When  the  eye  is  in  the 
proper  position  for  view- 
ing Fig.  18,  it  appears  a 
circle,  and  if  the  eye  is 
placed  at  a  point  about  4^"  from  the  paper  and  in  a  perpen- 
dicular to  the  page  erected  at  the  point  marked  CF,  the  ellipse  of 
Fig.  18  will  be  seen  obliquely  and  foreshortened  into  a  circle.^  In 
order  to  see  the  figure  when  the  eye  is  so  near,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  make  a  circular  hole  about  ^"  in  diameter  in  a  card  and  view 
the  drawing  through  this  hole,  which  serves  as  the  station-point. 

This  illustrates  the  important  fact  that  to  create  the  same  image 
in  the  eye  that  the  object  does,  any  perspective  drawing  must 
be  seen  from  one  fixed  point,  and  if  seen  from  any  other  point 
the  perspective  drawing  will  appear  distorted,  and  create  in  the 
eye  a  very  different  image  from  that  which  the  object  itself  will 
form. 

Fig.  20  represents  a  sphere  and  a  cube  placed  upon  a  horizontal 
surface  below  and  at  the  left  of  the  eye,  —  the  camera.  This  picture 
does  not  cause  the  reader  to  think  of  a  sphere,  but  it  does  create  the 
idea  of  a  cube,  because  cubes  have  been  represented  in  this  way  so 
generally  that  the  average  person  accepts  the  drawing  as  a  satis- 
factory representation  of  the  cube.  But  it  is  evident  that  if  the 
inclined  ellipse  which  represents  the  sphere,  is  a  distortion,  the 
representation  of  the  cube  below  it  must  be  as  much  distorted,  and 
actually  it  is  more  distorted  than  the  ellipse.     If  the  eye  is  placed 

^  These  letters  are  often  used  to  designate  the  centre  of  vision,  or  the  point 
on  the  picture  exactly  opposite  the  eye  of  the  spectator.  At  this  point  all  lines 
perpendicular  to  the  picture  plane  vanish. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND   MODEL   DRAWING. 


85 


at  the  station-point,  which  for  Fig.  20  is  about  5^"  from  the  paper 
and  in  a  perpendicular  to  the  page  erected  at  the  point  marked  CV, 
the  drawing  will  be  seen  obliquely  and  so  foreshortened  that  the 


Fig.  20.     Perspective  of  a  Sphere  and  Cube. 

ellipse  will  appear  a  circle,  and  the  representation  of  the  cube 
will  cause  the  same  image  in  the  eye  that  the  cube  does.  Figs.  18 
and  20  are  distorted  because  they  are  made  on  a  vertical  picture 
plane  through  which  the  visual  rays  pass  obliquely. 

Fig.  2 1  is  a  side  view  representing  the  sphere  situated  as  in  Fig. 
18    with   a   picture    plane    touching   the    sphere,    and    so    inclined 


86 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


r- 

I 


wKkky      J 


Fig. 


A  Side  View. 


as  to  be  perpendicular  to  a  line  from  the  spectator's  eye  to  the  centre 
of  the  sphere.  This  line  is  the  central  visual  ray  and  the  axis  of  the 
circular  cone  formed  by  the  visual  rays.  Since  this  cone  is  inter 
sected  by  a  picture  plane  which  is  perpendicular  to  its  axis,  the 
section  of  the  cone — that  is,  the  perspective  or  picture  of  thai 
sphere  —  is  a  true  picture  of  the  object  and  is  similar  in  its  form  t 
the  picture  formed  by  the  sphere  in  the  eye. 

The  picture  of  Fig.  2 1  is  a  circle,  and  differs  from  that  of  Fig.  i 
in  a  very  important  point  ;  for  when  Fig.  18  is  correctly  seen  the  eye 

must  be  at  one  fixed  point. 
When  thus  seen  it  creates 
in  the  eye  a  circular  image, 
but  the  picture  of  Fig.  21 
may  be  seen  from  any 
point  situated  in  a  perpen- 
dicular to  the  picture 
erected  at  its  centre,  and 
the  image  produced  in  the 
eye  will  be  a  circle,  without  regard  to  the  distance  of  the  eye  from 
the  paper. 

We  must  decide  that  the  drawing,  Fig.  21,  which  represents  the 
sphere  by  a  circle  is  preferable  to  the  drawing,  Fig.  18,  which 
represents  the  sphere  by  an  ellipse ;  for  though  Fig.  18  may  be  seen 
so  as  to  create  a  circular  image  in  the  eye,  there  is  little  chance  of 
this  occurring,  and  practically,  no  person,  whether  artist  or  not, 
would  ever  think  of  drawing  anything  but  a  circle  to  represent  a 
sphere. 

Perspective  drawings  are  distorted  as  shown  because  any  person 
who  looks  at  a  drawing  or  picture  naturally  holds  it  in  the  hand,  so 
that  its  surface  is  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  it  is  seen  ; 
or,  if  it  is  a  framed  picture,  the  person  stands  directly  in  front  of  it, 
and  so  that  its  surface  is  not  foreshortened.  If  a  picture  is  too  large 
to  be  taken  in  at  a  glance,  the  eye  is  moved  so  that  when  any  part 
is  seen  it  is  looked  at  from  a  direction  practically  perpendicular 
to  the  surface.  A  person  looking  at  a  large  canvas  naturally  places 
himself  in  front  of  the  left  part  when  he  is  studying  figures  or  other 
details  represented  in  this  part ;  and  in  the  same  way   he  studies 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTJVE   AND   MODEL   DRAWING.       ^J 

figures  or  detail  at  the  extreme  right  of  the  canvas  by  standing 
directly  in  front  of  this  part.  Of  course  he  obtains  his  impression 
of  the  effect  of  the  whole  picture  when  he  is  in  front  of  the  centre 
of  the  picture,  but  when  in  this  position  he  does  not  study  the 
extreme  parts  for  detail  because  he  has  unconsciously  acquired  the 
habit  of  looking  at  a  picture  so  that  its  surface  is  not  foreshortened. 
Whether  the  eye  moves  or  not  in  studying  a  large  canvas  is  a  ques- 
tion of  no  importance,  for  the  artist  never  draws  a  figure  distorted, 
as  Figs.  1 8  and  20  are  distorted,  in  order  that  it  may  look  right  when 
the  picture  is  seen  from  one  fixed  point  near  the  canvas;  and  he 
never  makes  a  drawing  which  he  intends  to  be  seen  obliquely  from 
a  point  in  a  perpendicular  to  the  picture  which  falls  outside  the 
limits  of  the  drawing. 

If  the  perspective  drawings.  Figs.  18,  19,  and  20,  are  looked  at 
naturally  they  will  give  very  false  ideas  of  the  appearances  of  the 
objects  they  represent.  In  order  that  Fig.  18  give  the  impression 
of  a  circle,  the  page  must  be  held  vertically  and  so  that  the  whole 
drawing  is  below  the  eye.  If  Fig.  20  is  to  give  the  right  impression, 
the  page  must  be  held  vertically  and  so  that  the  whole  drawing  is 
below  and  at  the  left  of  the  eye,  and  it  is  evident  that,  naturally, 
no  person  would  ever  make  a  free-hand  drawing  which  must  be 
viewed  so  unnaturally. 

The  cube  shown  in  Fig.  20  is  represented  by  a  scientific  perspec- 
tive drawing  in  Fig.  22.  This  drawing  will  give  the  same  image 
in  the  eye  that  the  cube  does  if  it  is  seen  from  a  point  about  9" 
from  the  paper  erected  at  the  point  marked  CV.  The  image 
produced  in  the  eye  by  thus  viewing  Fig.  22  will  be  found  to  be 
practically  the  same  as  that  given  by  looking  at  Fig.  23  from 
a  perpendicular  to  the  page  erected  at  the  centre  of  the  drawing ; 
and  it  is  evident  that  the  perspective.  Fig.  22,  when  it  is  seen  as  it 
generally  will  be,  is  as  much  a  distortion  as  the  ellipse  of  Fig.  18 
which  represents  the  sphere. 

To  create  the  same  image  in  the  eye  as  the  object.  Fig.  20  must 
be  seen  from  a  point  about  5^"  from  the  paper,  and  this  may 
cause  the  student  to  think  the  drawing  more  distorted  than  per- 
spective drawings  generally  are.  But  this  is  not  the  case,  for  if  the 
dimensions  of  the  drawing  are  made   twice  as  great,  the  distance 


88 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


of  the  eye  will  be  about  lo^",  and  if  the  drawing  is  made  thre< 
times  the  size,  the  distance  of  the  eye  will  be  increased  propor- 
tionately and  will  be  a  normal  distance,  while  the  drawing  is  as  dis- 
torted as  Fig.  20  because  it  must  be  seen  obliquely. 


Fig.  22. 
Scientific  Perspective. 


Fig.  22  is  a  scientific  perspective  which  distorts 
much  less  than  such  drawings  generally  do, 
for  the  distance  of  the  eye  is  greater  in  pro- 
portion to  the  size  of  the  drawing  than  is  often 
the-case,  so  that  there  will  generally  be  a  greater 
difference  between  perspective  drawings  and 
model  drawings  than  between  Figs.  22  and  23. 

Fig.  24  is  a  perspective  drawing  upon  a  verti- 
cal plane;  it  represents  two  horizontal   circular 

plinths,  A  and  B^  A  being  directly  in  front  and  B  placed  at  the 

right.     This  drawing  represents   the   circles    of 

the  plinth  at  the  left  by  horizontal  ellipses.     The 

eye  sees  these  circles  as  horizontal  ellipses,  and 

the  part   ^    is  a  true  picture,   except   that   its 

height  is  too  great. 

The  horizontal  circles  of  plinth  B  are  repre- 
sented   by    inclined    ellipses,    and    so,    ^o    give 

the    right    effect,    the    drawing    must    be    seen 

from  a  point  opposite  CV,  and  about  4^"  from 

the   paper.      If   seen  naturally  the  part   B  does   not  form    a   true 


Fig.  23. 
Free-Hand  Perspective. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND   MODEL   DRAWING.       89 

picture  of  the  object,  and  horizontal  circles  should  not  be  repre- 
sented by  inclined  ellipses  unless  they  are  tangent  to  squares,  or  so 
placed  that  they  cannot  be  represented  as  they  appear,  and  give 


Fig.  24.     Perspective  of  Circular  Plinths. 


the  correct  impression  of  their  position.  The  plinths  A  and  ^5  are 
of  the  same  size,  but  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  perspective  of  B 
is  wider  than  that  of  A. 

It  appears  that  all  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  station-point 
from  which  the  drawing  is  to  be  seen,  and  that  any  drawing  which 
requires  to  be  foreshortened  in  order  to  look  like  the  object  is  not 
a  satisfactory  representation.  The  artist  naturally  draws  what  will 
create  a  true  picture  in  the  eye  when  the  drawing  is  seen  perpendic- 
ularly, and  any  drawing  of  a  single  object  which  requires  to  be  seen 
obliquely,  cannot  be  accepted  as  the  best  picture  of  the  object.     The 


90 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


best  picture  of  any  object  must  be  the  one  which,  when  not  fore- 
shortened, causes  in  the  eye  an  image  practically  like  that  which  the 
object  itself  would  produce. 

Fig.  2  1  shows  that  the  picture  plane  which  gives  a  picture  which 
is  similar  to  the  image  in  the  eye  must  be  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  in  which  the  object  is  seen.  In  the  case  of  the  sphere 
below  the  eye,  as  in  Fig.  21,  a  circle  is  given  upon  the  inclined 
picture  plane,  and  this  circle,  when  viewed  naturally,  causes  the  same 
image  in  the  eye  that  the  sphere  does ;  but  it  is  possible  to  obtain 


Fig.  26.    A  Side  View. 


a  true  picture  on  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  an 
object  is  seen  which  will  not  when  viewed  naturally,  produce  a 
satisfactory  impression  of  the  object. 

Fig.  25  is  from  a  photograph  of  a  vertical  square  prism  below  the 
eye,  the  picture  plane  (the  negative)  being  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  in  which  the  prism  was  seen  as  illustrated  by  the  side  view, 
Fig.  26.  The  side  view  shows  that  the  lower  ends  of  the  vertical 
edges  are  farther  from  the  eye  than  the  upper  ends;  these  vertical 
edges  must  then  appear  to  converge  downwards,  just  as  Fig.  25 
represents  them.  Fig.  25  is  a  plane  perspective  upon  an  inclined 
picture  plane  instead  of  a  vertical  plane.  When  the  eye  is  at  the 
station-point,  which  for  Fig.  25  is  about  4^"  from  the  paper,  and 
in  a  perpendicular  to  the  page  erected  at  the  centre  of  the  draw- 
ing, and  when  the  drawing  is  inclined,  as  shown  in  Fig.  26,.  its  lines 
will  exactly  cover  the  edges  of  the  object,  anci  will,  of  course,  cause 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE  AND  MODEL   DRAWING.       9 1 


@ 


92 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


in  the  eye  the  same  image  that  the  object  does;  but  if  the  eye  is 
placed  nearer  the  paper  or  at  a  greater  distance,  or  if  the  paper 
is  not  at  the  proper  inchnation,  the  Hnes  of  Fig.  26  will  not  cover 
the  edges  of  the  object,  and  the  drawing  will  give  the  impression  of 
an  inclined  prism  instead  of  a  vertical  one.  This  drawing  is  just  as 
objectionable  as  Figs.  18  and  20,  for  it  requires  to  be  seen  from  one 
fixed  point  if  it  is  not  to  give  the  impression  of  inclined  lines  in 
nature. 

If  the  plane  perspective  drawing  is  made  upon  a  vertical  plane, 
the  vertical  edges  will  be  represented  by  the  vertical  lines  of  Fig.  27; 
but  to  give  the  right  impression  of  the  relative  height  and  width  of 
the  appearance,  this  drawing  must  be  foreshortened  by  being  seen 
from  a  point  about  4^ "  from  the  paper  and  in  a  perpendicular  to 
the  page  erected  at  CV.  If  looked  at  naturally  the  image  created 
is  too  high,  but  it  gives  the  right  impression  of  the  form  and  position 
of  the  object,  and  is  more  satisfactory  than  Fig.  25.  We  see  that  in 
the  case  of  the  prism,  an  exact  perspective  drawing  on  an  inclined 
plane  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  one  upon  a  vertical  picture  plane,  for 
though  giving  the  proportions  correctly,  it  does  not  give  the  impres- 
sion of  a  vertical  object.  Neither  Fig.  25  nor  Fig.  27  is  satisfactory 
or  would  be  made  by  the  artist,  who  would  represent  the  vertical 
edges  by  vertical  lines,  but  would  give  the  impression  of  the 
relative  width  and  height  by  representing  the  visual  proportions  of 
the  object.  The  artist  works  by  feeling  and  by  eye  more  than  by 
measurement,  but,  in  theory,  the  width  to  be  represented  by  means 
of  vertical  lines  would  be  the  average  of  the  widths  at  top  and 
bottom  of  Fig.  25,  —  that  is,  the  width  would  be  measured  at  the 
centre  of  the  object  for  comparison  with  the  height,  and  the  result- 
ing drawing,  Fig.  28,  is  like  Fig.  27,  but  not  so  high. 

The  artist,  as  he  draws  any  single  object,  does  not  think  of  a 
picture  plane,  but  simply  feels  the  visual  proportions  and  represents 
the  object  so  as  to  create  a  satisfactory  impression  of  it  and 
its  position,  and  he  represents  vertical  edges  by  vertical  lines. 
Vertical  edges  appear  to  vanish  just  as  much  as  do  horizontal  retreat- 
ing edges,  but  they  are  not  so  represented  'for  the  reason  explained. 
With  this  exception  any  single  object  causing  small  visual  angles 
should  be  represented  just  as  it  appears,  and  its  appearance  is  given 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND   MODEL   DRAWING. 


93 


upon  a  picture  plane  which  is  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in 
which  the  object  is  seen.  If  the  object  is  above  the  eye,  the  plane 
will  incline  at  the  top  toward  the  eye ;  if  the  object  is  on  the  level 
of  the  eye,  the  plane  will  be  vertical,  and  wherever  the  object  is 
situated  with  reference  to  the  spectator,  whether  in  front,  at  the 
right,  or  at  the  left,  the  picture  plane  will  be  perpendicular  to  the 
direction  in  which  the  object  is  seen. 

Generally,  objects  are  so  little  above  or  below  the  level  of  the  eye 
that  a  perspective,  made  upon  a  vertical  plane  at  right  angles  to  a 
horizontal  line  from  the  eye  to  a  point  just  over  or  under  the  object, 
will  be  satisfactory,  and  if  an  object  is  far  enough  from  the  level  of  the 
eye  to  cause  its  perspective  on  this  vertical  plane  to  be  much  too 
high,  the  artist's  drawing  may  be  supposed  to  be  made  upon  the 
vertical  plane,  and  corrected  by  changing  the  height  of  the  drawing 
to  agree  with  the  apparent  height  of  the  object.  The  question  of 
the  plane  of  the  drawing  is,  however,  of  little  importance  when  single 
objects  are  studied,  for  pupils  should  then  always  be  taught  to  give 
the  actual  visual  proportions,  to  represent  vertical  edges  by  vertical 
lines,  and  to  take  any  measurements  of  proportions  with  the  measur- 
ing rod  always  at  right  angles  to  the  visual  rays ;  and  it  is  not  neces- 
sary for  them  to  think  of  picture  planes,  vertical  or  inclined. 

All  single  objects  causing  small  visual  angles  should  generally  be 
represented  just  as  they  appear  except  as  to  the  convergence  of 
vertical  edges,  but  when  <-here  are  several  objects  to  be  represented 
in  the  same  drawing  the  problem  is  more  complicated. 

A  row  of  three  equal  boxes  placed  in  a  straight  line  is  represented 
by  the  Figs.  29,  30,  and  31.  Fig.  29  represents  the  actual  appear- 
ance of  the  left  box.  Fig.  30  that  of  the  central  box,  and  Fig.  31 
that  of  the  right-hand  box.  Each  drawing  is  a  separate  and  com- 
plete picture,  and  should  be  studied  when  the  other  figures  are 
covered  by  pieces  of  paper,  and  with  the  eye  in  a  perpendicular  to 
the  drawing.  When  Fig.  29  is  thus  studied  it  gives  the  best  impres- 
sion of  the  appearance  and  position  of  the  left  box  ;  when  Figs.  29 
and  31  are  covered,  and  Fig.  30  is  seen  perpendicularly,  it  gives  the 
best  representation  of  the  central  box  ;  and  when  Figs.  29  and  30 
are  covered,  and  Fig.  31  is  seen  perpendicularly,  it  gives  the  best 
impression  of  the  box  at  the  right.    Box  A  is  farther  from  the  eye  than 


94 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND  MODEL   DRAWING.       95 

box  B.f  and,  consequently,  its  vertical  edges  appear  shorter  than  those 
of  box  B^  and  their  ends  appear  respectively  higher  than  those  of  the 
edges  of  box  B.  The  ends  of  the  long  edges  of  the  box  A  are 
unequally  distant  from  the  eye,  and  by  Rule  6  they  must  appear  to 
vanish ;  and  by  Rule  1 7  we  find  that  not  one  of  the  three  visible  faces 
of  the  box  A  can  appear  its  real  shape.  The  same  facts  govern  the 
appearance  of  box  C,  Fig.  31  ;  and  it  is  evident  if  we  draw  each  of 
the  boxes  as  it  is  seen,  and  with  its  corners  relatively  higher  than 
the  corresponding  ones  of  box  B^  that  we  cannot  look  at  the 
drawings,  Figs.  29,  30,  and  31,  as  one  picture,  for  if  the  three  are 
seen  at  one  time,  the  impression  of  boxes  arranged  in  a  curved  line 
is  given. 

These  figures  illustrate  the  fact  that  when  objects,  or  an  object, 
cause  large  visual  angles  (angles  over  30°),  we  cannot  draw  the 
appearance  of  each  object,  or  of  each  part  of  the  one  object,  and 
produce  a  satisfactory  picture,  for  the  picture  will  give  the  appear- 
ance of  the  objects  and  not  their  relative  positions.  It  is  much  more 
important  that  the  one  drawing.  Fig.  32,  which  represents  the  three 
boxes,  give  the  impression  of  boxes  arranged  in  a  straight  line,  than 
that  the  part  representing  the  box  at  the  left,  or  that  at  the  right,  be 
a  true  picture  of  the  box ;  therefore,  the  artist  who  represents  in  one 
drawing  the  three  boxes  will  do  so  by  the  use  of  horizontal  straight 
lines,  as  in  Fig.  32. 

The  boxes,  A  and  C  are  farther  from  the  eye  than  box  B^  conse- 
quently, their  front  faces  are  foreshortened  horizontally,  so  as  to 
appear  narrower  than  that  of  B.  In  Fig.  32  the  artist  would  gener- 
ally represent  the  three  faces  of  equal  width,  and  he  would,  also, 
probably  omit  the  representation  of  the  foreshortening  of  the  spaces 
between  the  boxes.  The  three  front  vertical  faces  are  below  the  eye, 
and  so  foreshortened  vertically ;  this  foreshortening  would  not  be 
represented  in  Fig.  32  unless  the  horizontal  foreshortening  is  given, 
and  generally,  the  artist  would  make  for  Fig.  32,  an  exact  parallel 
perspective  drawing,  as  illustrated  and  explained  under  Fig.  34. 

Figs.  29,  30,  and  31,  when  looked  at  incorrectly  as  one  picture, 
give  the  effect  of  curved  lines,  and  lead  one  to  question  if  straight 
lines  in  nature  do  not  appear  curved.  It  is  a  fact  that  straight 
lines  do  appear  curved,  even  when  they  are  short.     The  line  connect- 


96  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

ing  the  front  upper  edges  of  the  three  boxes,  Figs.  29,  30,  and  31, 
will  prove  this,  if  we  apply  Rules  6  and  9.  Thus,  point  i  is  the 
nearer  end  of  line  1-2,  which  must,  by  Rule  6,  appear  to  incline 
upward  to  the  left;  and  point  i  is  the  nearer  end  of  line  1-3,  which 
must  then  appear  to  incline  upward  to  the  right.  But  the  line  2—1-3 
appears  horizontal  at  i ;  there  is  certainly  no  angle  formed  at  this 
point,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  change  from  the  level  of  i  to  that  of 
2  and  3  must  be  gradual,  —  must  be,  in  fact,  a  regular  motion  which 
produces  in  the  eye  the  effect  of  a  curve;  but  the  mind  reads  this 
curve  in  the  eye  as  the  picture  of  a  straight  line,  and  refuses  to  think 
of  a  straight  line,  when  the  three  drawings.  Figs.  29,  30,  and  31,  are 
looked  at  as  one  picture. 

It  is  difficult  to  believe  that  straight  lines  appear  curved,  but  this 
appearance  is  always  given  by  long  straight  lines  which  the  mind 
does  not  know  to  be  straight.  At  sunset  the  shadows  of  the  clouds 
extend  in  straight  lines,  which  are  often  practically  horizontal  with 
reference  to  any  observer.  These  shadows  appear  as  bands  of  dark, 
separated  by  the  bright  bands  of  the  unobscured  rays  of  sunlight, 
and  both  dark  and  light  bands  are  seen  radiating 'from  the  sun,  and 
becoming  wider  and  wider  as  they  recede  from  it  and  approach  the 
spectator.  Sometimes  these  cloud  shadows  may  be  seen  extending 
to  directly  overhead,  and  sometimes  they  extend  beyond  the  spec- 
tator toward  the  east,  when  they  seem  to  converge  opposite  the  sun, 
as  they  do  in  the  west  at  the  sun.  When  the  impression  of  these 
lines  extending  from  overhead  toward  both  the  west  and  the  east  is 
received,  the  effect  of  curvature  is  realized,  for  the  mind  does  not 
think  of  these  bands  of  light  and  dark  as  bounded  by  straight  lines. 
The  pupil  may  never  l?e  conscious  of  seeing  the  effect  of  curvature 
produced*  by  straight  lines.  He  may  reason  that,  if  he  looks  over 
the  edge  of  a  ruler,  held  horizontal,  and  in  front  of  the  line  2-1-3, 
that  the  edge  of  the  ruler  appears  to  coincide  with  the  line,  and  thus 
the  line  must  appear  straight;  but  a  short  line  near  the  eye  will 
appear  to  cover  a  distant  line  which  is  miles  long,  and  the  ends 
of  the  ruler  are  relatively  as  much  farther  from  the  centre  of  the 
ruler  as  the  points  2  and  3  are  from  point  i.  Therefore,  the  ruler 
really  causes  in  the  eye  the  same  curved  line  that  the  line  2-1-3  in 
the  distance  does. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND  MODEL   DRAWING, 


97 


If  we  study  the  eye,  it  is  evident  that  all  its  images  are  upon 
a  spherical  surface,  and  so  all  lines  upon  this  surface  must  be 
curved,  whether  they  represent — that  is,  are  pictured  by —  straight 
lines  or  curved  lines.  In  the  case  of  three  vertical  lines,  rep- 
resented by  the  points  A,  C,  B,  Fig.  17,  one  being  directly 
in  front  and  the  others  at  the  sides,  three  vertical  planes  com- 
posed of  the  visual  rays  are  formed.  The  vertical  planes  formed 
by  the  rays  to  the  central  line  C  intersect  the  eye  in  a 
curve,  which,  in  the  top  view.  Fig.  17,  is  represented  by  VC  \ 
The  vertical  planes  formed  by  the  rays  to  the  lines  at  the  sides,  inter- 
sect the  eye  in  curves,  which,  in  Fig.  17,  are  represented  by  the 
lines  VB'  and  VA',  and  it  is  evident  that  the  intersections  of  these 
three  planes  with  the  eye,  must  be  curves  which  tend  to  intersect 
each  other  at  two  opposite  points,  represented  in  Fig.  17  by  F,  one 
being  at  the  top  of  the  eye  and  the  other  at  the  bottom.  It  is,  how- 
ever, not  of  the  slightest 
consequence  whether 
straight  lines  appear 
curved  or  not,  for  if  the 
artist  draws  the  different 
parts  of  the  same  straight 
lines,  or  of  parallel  straight 
lines  as  he  sees  them,  the 
drawing  resulting  will  give 
the  effect  of  curvature. 
This  is  illustrated  by  Fig. 
33,  which  reproduces  the 
main  lines  of  a  published 
drawing  by  an  artist  who  ' 

drew  just  what  he  saw,  without  considering  the  effect  thus 
produced,  or  the  perspective  principles  which  the  artist  must 
understand  and  apply.  This  drawing  is  similar  in  its  errors  to  those 
which  may  often  be  found  in  the  illustrations  of  our  books  and 
papers.  These  errors  are  due  to  the  fact  that  the  visual  angles,  in  a 
subject  causing  large  visual  angles,  are  measured  on  so  large  a  part  of 
the  surface  of  a  sphere,  that  they  cannot  be  approximately  represented 
on  the  surface  of  a  plane.     In  other  words,  we  see  in  a  sphere  and 


Fig.  33.     Incorrect  Drawing. 


98  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

draw  on  a  plane ;  and,  as  the  surface  of  the  sphere  cannot  be  devel- 
oped, we  cannot  represent  the  different  objects  included  in  a  subject 
causing  large  visual  angles,  so  that  the  actual  appearance  of  each 
object  shall  be  given,  and  also  the  relations  of  the  objects  to  each 
other.  In  the  work  of  the  artist,  then,  the  least  important  must  give 
way  to  the  more  important.  To  the  pupil  and  the  teacher  it  is  more 
important  that  a  correct  impression  of  the  whole,  and  of  the  relations 
of  its  parts,  be  given,  than  that  the  parts  be  true  pictures  and  the 
impression  of  the  whole  be  faulty ;  and  thus  it  is  often  necessary  for 
the  artist  to  make  the  scientific  perspective  drawings  which  have 
been  shown  to  be  so  false  in  representing  the  appearance  of  single 
objects. 

Fig.  34  is  a  perspective  drawing  of  four  cubes  whose  vertical  faces 
are  in  two  vertical  planes,  parallel  to  the  picture  plane.  When 
naturally  seen,  this  drawing  does  not  give  the  appearance  which  any 
one  cube  presents  to  the  eye  at  the  station-point,  but  it  does  give  the 
impression  of  four  equal  cubes,  and  of  the  facts  of  their  positions, 
and  it  is  the  best  drawing  that  can  be  made  of  the  four  cubes  thus 
placed.  If  the  drawing  is  viewed  from  a  point  opposite  CF",  and 
about  4"  from  the  paper,  the  drawing  of  each  cube  will  be  fore- 
shortened so  as  to  create  the  same  image  in  the  eye  as  the  cube 
it  represents,  but  if  the  drawing  is  not  thus  seen,  it  is  still  the  best 
drawing  of  the  subject.  The  drawing  is  on  a  vertical  picture  plane, 
at  right  angles  to  the  general  direction  in  which  the  group  of  cubes 
is  seen,  and  it  illustrates  the  fact  that  when  an  object  or  a  group  of 
objects  causing  large  visual  angles  is  to  be  represented,  a  vertical 
picture  plane,  at  right  angles  to  a  line  to  the  centre  of  the  group  or 
the  subject,  must  be  used  if  the  drawing  is  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
facts  of  position  and  be  satisfactory. 

This  is  shown  again  by  Figs.  35,  36,  and  37.  Fig.  35  is  a  perspec- 
tive of  a  bureau,  taken  so  as  to  give  the  appearance  of  inclination, 
which  the  horizontal  lines  of  the  drawer  at  the  left  must  appear  to 
have  according  to  Rules  6  and  9.  Fig.  36  is  a  perspective  which, 
in  the  same  way,  gives  the  appearance  of  the  drawer  at  the  right. 
The  left  half  of  Fig.  35  is  satisfactory  if  the  right  half  is  covered 
with  paper,  and  the  right  half  of  Fig  36  is  satisfactory  if  the  left 
half  is  covered ;  but  neither  drawing  gives  a  satisfactory  impression 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND  MODEL   DRAWING.       99 

of  the  whole  bureau.  To  do  this  the  perspective,  Fig.  37,  must  be 
made  on  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  a  horizontal  line  froin  the  eye 
to  a  point  over  the  centre  of  the  bureau.  These  drawings  illustrate 
the  point  shown  also  by  Figs.  32  and  34,  that  the  picture  plane  must 


Fig.  34.      Scientific  Perspective  (Parallel). 

be  parallel  to  parallel  straight  lines  which  extend  on  both  sides  of 
the  spectator  if  they  are  to  be  satisfactorily  represented. 

The  station-point  for  Fig.  35  is  about  3^2"  from  the  paper  and 
opposite  a  point  near  the  top  of  the  cut  and  over  the  left  drawer. 
If  seen  from  this  point,  the  drawing  is  foreshortened  by  having  its 
left  side  nearer  the  eye  than  its  right,  and  will  not  appear  distorted. 

The  station-point  for  Fig.  36  is  about  3/^"  from  the  paper 
and  opposite  a  point  near  the  top  of  the  cut  and  over  the  right 
drawer.     If  seen  from  this  point,  the  drawing  is  foreshortened  by 


lOO 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Fig.  35.     Gives  Actual  Appearance  of  the  Drawer  at  the  Left. 


Fig.  36.     Gives  Actual  Appearance  of  the  Drawer  at  the  Right. 


Fig.  37.     The  Most  Satisfactory  Representation  of  the  Whole. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE  AND  MODEL   DRAWING.    lOI 

having   its  right    side    nearer   the    eye    than   its   left,  and  will   not 
appear  distorted. 

We  find  that  the  artist  draws  single  objects  just  as  he  sees  them, 
or,  rather,  feels  them,  and  that  these  drawings  are  generally  satis- 
factory ;  but  sometimes  single  objects  cannot  be  represented 
satisfactorily  just  as  they  appear. 

Fig.  38  is  a  perspective  taken  upon  a  vertical  plane  perpendicular 
to  a  line  from  the  eye  to  a  point  just  over  the  centre  of  the  object. 
It  is  not  a  satisfactory  drawing  of  a  right  prism,  for  it  gives  the  idea 
of  a  block  whose  nearer  end  is  not  at  right  angles  to  the  long  edges. 

Fig.  39  is  a  perspective  drawing  upon  a  plane  parallel  to  the  long^ 
edges,  and  is  much  more  satisfactory  than  Fig.  38,  although  most 
of  Fig.  38  is  like  the  appearance,  and  most  of  Fig.  39  is  unlike  the 
appearance.  If  a  piece  of  paper  is  held  to  cover  the  left-hand  line 
of  Fig.  38,  the  rest  of  the  drawing  will  be  satisfactory,  while  in  Fig. 
39  the  larger  part  is  different  from  what  the  eye  sees,  but  necessarily 
so  in  order  that  the  effect  of  an  oblique  prism  is  not  produced. 

If  pupils  have  a  single  object  to  draw,  and  one  end  appears  a 
vertical  line,  as  in  Fig.  38,  they  should,  if  possible,  move  so  that 
this  end  becomes  visible,  and  the  drawing,  Fig.  40,  a  satisfactory 
representation  of  the  object,  or  so  that  the  eye  is  between  the  two 
ends  of  the  object,  in  which  case  the  long  lines  would,  as  previously 
explained,  be  represented  by  horizontal  lines,  as  in  Figs.  32,  34,  and 
I  37.  These  drawings  illustrate  the  following  rules: 
'  Rule  31.  Whenever  a  vertical  surface  of  a  horizontal  object 
is  seen  edgewise  and  appears  a  vertical  line,  any  horizontal  lines 
perpendicular  to  this  surface  must  be  represented  by  parallel  hori- 
zontal lines. 

Rule  32.  Parallel  horizontal  lines  connecting  two  vertical  parallel 
surfaces,  one  at  the  right  and  the  other  at  the  left,  must  be  repre- 
sented by  parallel  horizontal  lines;  that  is,  when  only  one  of  the 
vertical  faces  of  a  horizontal  prism  is  visible  from  any  point  between 
the  ends  of  this  surface,  the  horizontal  lines  of  this  and  parallel 
surfaces  must  be  represented  by  horizontal  lines. 

Rule  33.  When  any  two  vertical  surfaces  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  are  visible  as  surfaces  at  the  same  time,  the  horizontal  lines  of 
both  must  appear  to  vanish. 


I02 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


F1G.38.     An  Unsatisfactory  Drawing. 


Fig.  39.      A  Satisfactory  Drawing. 


Fig.  40.     Satisfactory. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE  AND   MODEL   DRAWING. 


103 


Rule  34.  Any  drawing  representing  by  the  use  of  two  vanishing 
points,  two  systems  of  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  must  always 
be  placed  between  the  two  vanishing  points. 

Rule  35.  Any  drawing  representing  by  the  use  of  two  vanishing 
points,  two  systems  of  lines  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  which 
extends  to  or  beyond  either  vanishing  point,  must  be  distorted. 


Interiors  and  Exteriors. 

The  principles  explained  above  should  govern  the  representation 
of  any  subject  of  a  geometriq  nature,  without  regard  to  the  size  of 
the  subject,  which   is  of  no  consequence,  as  the  only  point  to  be 


Fig.  41.     A  Serious  Distortion  of  All  at  the  Left  of  AB. 

considered  is  the  visual  angle  formed  by  the  subject ;  but  to  show 
how  the  rules  apply  to  interiors  and  exteriors,  the  following  illustra- 
tions are  given. 

Fig.  41  is  a  perspective  representing  one  wall  of  a  room  which 
vanishes  to  the  right.  The  lines  perpendicular  to  the  wall  vanish 
at  point  CVm  AB  \  therefore,  the  drawing  is  unsatisfactory,  for  all 


I04 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


at  the  left  of  AB  is  outside  of  both  vanishing  points,  and  most 
unpleasantly  distorted.  Fig.  36  shows  the  same  distortion  in  the 
left  part  of  the  bureau.  The  station-point  from  which  Fig.  41  will 
not  appear  distorted  is  about  2^"  from  CV. 

If  this  wall  is  to  be  represented  by  converging  lines,  the  station- 
point  must  be  about  opposite  the  end  of  the  room,  and  nothing  at  the 


Fig.  42.     A  Satisfactory  Representation  of  One  Wall. 

left  of  the  left  vanishing  point  can  be  shown.  Fig.  42  represents 
the  wall  when  thus  seen  and  is  a  satisfactory  drawing.  Like  any 
perspective  it  requires,  however,  to  produce  the  same  image  as  the 
object,  to  be  seen  from  the  station-point,  which  is  about  2^"  from 
the  centre  of  the  picture.  When  viewed  naturally  the  perspective  is 
unpleasant  though  not  distorted  as  in  Fig.  41. 

The  wall  may  be  represented  as  seen  from  a  station-point  about 
opposite  the  centre  of  the  wall.  The  resulting  drawing,  Fig.  43,  is 
satisfactory,  though,   as  already   shown,   it  does   not   represent  the 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND   MODEL   DRAWING.    105 

appearance  of  the  objects  in  the  room  unless  the  eye  is  at  the  station- 
point,  which,  in  Fig.  43,  is  about  3"  from  the  paper,  and  opposite 
point  CV.  It  gives,  however,  the  positions  of  the  objects  with 
reference  to  the  wall,  and  is  often  the  best  representation  that  can 
be  made. 

Fig.  44  represents  two  walls  of  a  room  as  they  are  often  illustrated. 
The  drawing  is  unsatisfactory  because  it  distorts  the  objects  at  the 


Fig.  43.     A  Satisfactory  Representation  of  One  Wall. 


centre  of  the  picture.  The  station-point  for  this  drawing  is  about 
3^"  from  CV.  There  is  no  reason  why  these  objects  should  be 
distorted,  and  if  the  picture  f)lane  is  placed  at  right  angles  to  a 
horizontal  line  from  the  eye  to  the  centre  of  the  subject,  both  walls 
will  be  at  angles  to  the  picture  plane  and  their  lines  will  vanish 
as  in  Fig.  45.  The  station-point  for  Fig.  45  is  about  3^" 
from  the  centre  of  the  picture,  and  this  figure  illustrates  the 
following  rule  : 

Rule  36.  When  two  walls  of  a  room  are  to  be  represented  about 
equally,  the  drawing  should  have  two  vanishing  points  for  the  hori- 
zontal lines  of  the  walls  and  lines  parallel  to  the  walls. 


io6 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Fig  46  represents  three  walls  of  a  room,  the  picture  plane  being 
at  right  angles  to  a  line  from  the  eye  to  the  centre  of  the  subject. 
As  the  eye  is  nearer  the  wall  at  the  left  than  that  at  the  right,  the 
horizontal  lines  of  the  end  of  the  room  are  at  an  angle  to  the  picture 
plane,  and  vanish  to  the  right.  The  lines  of  the  other  walls  vanish 
at  point  CF  in  AB,  and  the  drawing  is  very  unsatisfactory,  for  all  at 
the   left  of  AJ5  is  distorted.      If  Fig.   46  is  viewed  from   a  station- 


FiG.  44.     An  Unsatisfactory  Drawing. 


point  opposite  CFand  about  3"  from  the  paper  it  will  not  appear 
distorted. 

Fig.  47  is  a  perspective  drawing  on  a  plane  parallel  to  the  end 
of  the  room.  It  is  the  best  drawing  that  can  be  made,  and  illus- 
trates Rule  32  ;  its  station-point  is  about  3"  from  the  centre  of  the 
picture. 

In  drawing  interiors  the  artist  will  generally  represent  the  actual 
visual  proportions  of  his  subject  as  far  as  this  can  be  done  by 
representing  straight  lines  by  straight  lines,  but  he  will  always  give 
the  actual  appearance  of  separate  objects  and  details  of  the  subject, 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND  MODEL   DRAWING. 


107 


unless  it  is  necessary  to  show  the  positions  of  these  objects  with 
reference  to  the  principal  lines  of  the  room.  When  furniture  or 
other  details  have  their  lines  parallel  to  those  of  the  walls,  the 
artist  is  obliged  to  make  practically  the  exact  parallel  perspective 
drawing  illustrated  by  Figs.  34,  37,  43,  and  47.  The  artist  may 
sometimes  depart  from  the  proportions  of  these  parallel  perspective 
drawings  and  give  the  foreshortening  seen  in  horizontal  and  vertical 


Fig.  45.     A  Satisfactory  Drawing. 

dimensions,  but  when  subjects  similar  to  those  mentioned  above  are 
to  be  represented,  it  is  generally  best  to  make  the  exact  perspective 
drawing  which  requires  to  be  seen  from  one  fixed  point. 

This  is  true,  however,  only  with  regard  to  geometric  subjects,  for 
the  artist  always  represents  other  subjects  just  as  he  sees  them. 
In  figure  drawing,  for  instance,  he  draws  each  figure  just  as  he  sees 
it,  and  would  never  think  of  making  a  scientific  perspective  drawing 
of  such  a  subject  as  the  Lord's  Supper,  except  as  regards  the  room. 

Fig.  48  is  a  top  view  representing  the  station-point  or  eye  of  a 
spectator  who  stands  in  front  of  the  central  cylinder,  B,  of  a  row  of 


io8 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 


Fig.  46.     A  Serious  Distortion  of  all  at  the  Left  of  AB. 


Fig.  47.    A  Satisfactory  Representation. 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND  MODEL   DRAWING.    109 

three  equal  cylinders,  A,  B;  and  C,  and  traces  upon  a  vertical 
picture  plane  placed  against  the  cylinders  lines  to  cover  each 
cylinder  and  form  the  perspective  of  the  cylinders;  the  cyUnders 
may  roughly  represent  three  equal  figures.  The  visual  rays  from  A 
and  B  to  the  station-point  pass  through  the  picture  plane  obliquely, 
and  thus  the  widths  3-4  and  5-6  of  the  drawings  of  A  and  C  are 
wider  than   1-2  which   represents  the   central  figure.     To  make  a 


Fig.  48.     A  Top  View. 


scientific  perspective,  then,  of  figures  arranged  as  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  the  figures  at  the  extremes  of  the  canvas  should  be  repre- 
sented as  much  stouter  or  wider  than  those  at  the  centre,  in  order 
that  they  will  appear  the  same  size  as  those  at  the  centre  when  they 
are  foreshortened  by  being  seen  obliquely  by  the  eye  situated  at  the 
station-point ;  and  this  no  artist  would  think  of  doing,  for  he  always 
draws  what  he  sees,  and  represents  each  figure  so  that  it  will  look 
right  when  seen  from  a  point  directly  in  front  of  it. 

When  drawing  exteriors  and  outdoor  subjects,  the  principles 
governing  the  representation  of  objects  and  interiors  should,  with 
few  exceptions,  be  applied.  If  the  eye  is  opposite  or  very  near  one 
end  or  side  of  a  large  building  of  which  one  side  only  is  seen,  this 
side  may  be  represented  by  vanishing  lines,  as  in  Fig.  42,  but  never 
so  as  to  distort,  as  Fig.  41  distorts  the  desk.  If  the  eye  is  situated 
as  in  Fig.  41,  or  is  near  the  centre  of  the  side  to  be  represented,  the 
horizontal  lines  of  the  side  must  be  represented  by  horizontal  lines, 


i 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE  AND  MODEL  DRAWING.     I  I  3 

as  in  Fig.  43.  If  two  vertical  sides  of  a  rectangular  building  are 
seen,  the  horizontal  lines  of  both  must  vanish. 

When  drawing  a  landscape,  the  artist  will  represent  just  what  he 
sees  and  obtain  a  satisfactory  picture,  unless  there  are  long  straight 
lines,  or  straight  lines  causing  large  visual  angles  in  the  subject. 
In  this  case,  if  the  artist  draws  what  he  sees,  he  will,  as  already- 
shown,  represent  the  straight  lines  by  curved  lines,  and  generally 
produce  an  unsatisfactory  drawing. 

In  drawing  an  ordinary  landscape  or  street  scene,  if  the  artist 
draws  just  what  he  sees,  as  he  looks  at  the  different  parts  of  the 
subject,  he  is  really  making  a  drawing  upon  what  is  practically  the 
vertical  surface  of  a  hollow  cylinder;  for  his  subject  has  so  little 
height  in  comparison  with  its  width,  that  a  vertical  picture  plane  at 
right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  any  part  is  seen  will  give  prac- 
tically a  true  picture  of  this  part.  As  the  artist  turns,  this  vertical 
picture  plane  will  sweep  through  a  cylindrical  surface,  and  an  artist's 
drawing  of  an  outdoor  subject  taking  in  a  wide  visual  angle  is  prac- 
tically the  development  of  the  surface  of  the  cylinder  upon  which 
true  pictures  of  the  different  parts  are  obtained.  A  drawing  upon 
a  cylindrical  surface  is  called  a  cylindrical  perspective,  and  represents 
parallel  straight  lines  by  curved  lines  which  converge  at  opposite 
points. 

A  drawing  which  represents  straight  lines  by  curves  is  generally 
unsatisfactory.  In  some  cases  it  may  not  be  objectionable,  and 
drawings  of  this  nature  have  been  made  by  noted  artists.  The 
student  should  never  be  allowed  to  make  such  a  drawing,  and  the 
artist  should  do  so  only  when  the  straight  lines  are  frequently 
broken,  or  in  different  planes,  so  that  it  is  not  evident,  at  first 
glance,  that  the  lines  are  straight  and  parallel.  The  same  effect 
of  curvature  is  produced  by  long  vertical  lines  as  by  long  parallel 
horizontal  lines  ;  the  artist  may  represent  this  convergence  in  the 
verticals,  though  not  as  often  as  he  may  represent  the  curvature  of 
horizontal  lines. 

Fig.  49  is  a  curvilinear  perspective  which  was  taken  with  a  revolv- 
ing camera  upon  a  cylindrical  negative.  It  represents  the  Boston 
Public  Library,  with  the  Art  Museum  at  the  left  and  the  New  Old 
South  Church  at  the  right. 


114 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Fig.  50  represents  the  same  subject  by  a  common  plane  perspec- 
tive drawing,  which  gives  the  idea  of  a  straight  street.  From  Fig. 
49  we  get  the  idea  of  a  curved  street  and  building.  Fig.  50  is  far 
preferable,  and  the  artist  should  always  represent  straight  lines  by 
straight  lines,  unless  the  conditions  are  such  that  the  effect  of 
curvature  is  not  noticeable  or  unpleasant;  but  this  is  a  question 
for  the  artist,  the  teacher  and  student  should  always  represent 
straight  lines  by  straight  lines. 

Although  Fig.  50  is  preferable  to  fig.  49,  it  distorts  the  parts  at 
the  right  and  left  very  unpleasantly,  and  the  artist  who  wishes  to 
represent  the  Library  should  omit  the  Art  Museum,  so  as  to  be  able 
to  represent  the  Library  and  Church  as  they  appear  and  by  the  use 
of  two  vanishing  points.  Fig.  51  shows  how  the  artist  may  combine 
the  horizontal  dimensions  of  the  curvilinear  perspective,  Fig.  49,  with 
the  straight  lines  of  a  plane  perspective  to  produce  the  most  satis- 
factory representation  of  the  subject. 

It  is  evident  that  any  drawing,  whether  a  scientific  or  a  free-hand 
perspective,  should  be  seen  from  a  certain  distance  and  point  in 
order  to  produce  the  best  effect.  In  drawings  of  single  objects  this 
^  point  is  generally  outside  the  scientific  perspective,  so  that  the 
drawing  is  distorted  when  it  is  seen  naturally.  Of  course,  a  free- 
hand perspective  may  be  distorted  by  being  seen  obliquely;  but 
drawings  are  naturally  viewed  perpendicularly,  so  that  it  requires 
an  effort  to  view  a  free-hand  perspective  incorrectly,  while  the  effort 
is  required  to  see  the  scientific  perspective  correctly. 

The  free-hand  perspective  causes  practically  the  same  image  in 
the  eye  whatever  the  distance  be  from  which  it  is  viewed,  and  when 
it  is  not  seen  from  the  proper  station-point  the  impression  received 
from  it  differs  from  that  received  from  the  objects  only  in  regard  to 
the  relative  sizes  of  the  objects  it  represents.  When  a  scientific 
perspective  is  not  seen  from  its  station-point  there  is  not  only  this 
change  in  the  relative  sizes  of  the  objects,  but  also  changes  in  their 
appearances;  so  every  consideration  favors  the  use  of  the  free-hand 
perspective  instead  of  the  scientific. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  artist's  drawing  is  not  a  drawing  which 
can  be  made  upon  any  plane,  whatever  its  position.  Another  point 
of  difference  between  the  artist's  drawing  and  any  perspective  is  due 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE   AND  MODEL   DRA  WING.    I  1 5 

to  the  fact  that  a  perspective  represents  what  is  seen  by  one  eye,  or 
from  one  fixed  point,  while  the  artist's  drawing  represents  the  facts 
of  form  realized  by  means  of  two  eyes,  that  is,  two  station-points. 
The  difference  between  a  perspective  and  what  is  seen  with  both 
eyes  will  be  readily  appreciated  by  looking  at  any  subject  containing 
objects  at  different  distances,  first  with  one  eye,  then  with  the  other, 
and  then  with  both  at  once.  By  means  of  our  two  eyes  we  appre- 
ciate the  roundness  or  solidity  of  objects  and  also  their  distances 
apart.  These  are  the  qualities  which  are  most  important  to  the 
artist,  and  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  his  drawing  must  be  a  matter 
of  feeling  and  not  of  science. 

The  pupil  who  uses  the  glass  slate,  except  in  work  from  copies, 
must  close  one  eye  to  test  accurately,  and  his  drawing  is  thus  a 
perspective.  But  this  work  is  elementary,  and  necessary  to  prepare 
the  pupil  to  see  accurately  enough  to  draw  with  feeling  in  later  work 
when  the  slate  is  not  used,  and  it  gives  the  best  preparatory  educa- 
tion that  can  be  obtained. 

We  must  decide  that  the  teacher  should  adopt  the  artist's  methods, 
and  enable  pupils  to  draw  first  what  the  eye  sees,  —  that  is,  what 
will  give  the  best  impression  of  the  appearance  and  the  facts  of 
single  objects  or  subjects  causing  small  visual  angles,  —  and  then 
to  teach  them  to  apply  perspective  principles,  as  they  may  be  needed 
to  correct  the  drawings  made  by  eye  from  geometric  subjects  causing 
wide  visual  angles,  and  finally  to  teach  them  the  principles  of  scien- 
tific perspective,  so  that  when  this  drawing  is  required,  as  it  often 
will  be,  they  may  be  able  to  produce  it.  But  the  teacher  or  student 
of  perspective  is  not  wise  to  insist  that  the  artist  shall  always  make 
scientific  perspective  drawings ;  for  he  does  not  do  this,  and  never 
will  in  his  highest  work,  and  we  must  accept  the  uniform  practice 
of  all  great  artists  of  the  past  and  present  to  decide  the  point  that 
it  is  not  best  to  make,  unless  compelled  to,  a  scientific  perspective 
drawing  which  requires  to  be  seen  from  one  fixed  point. 

Summary. 

Drawings  may  be  arranged  in  the  following  classes : 
I.     Drawings    representing   the   appearance  .of   a   single  object 
whose  position  is  of  no  consequence. 


Il6  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

2.  Drawings  representing  the  appearance  and  the  position  of  a 
single  object. 

3.  Drawings  representing  more  than  one  object,  and  giving  the 
impression  of  their  appearances  and  their  relations. 

In  the  first  class  may  be  placed  drawings  of  crystals,  insects, 
foliage,  and  similar  subjects  whose  form  and  construction  or  color  are 
to  be  rep|;jesented.  The  question  of  the  picture  plane  is  simple  in 
all  such  cases  ;  for,  as  the  object  may  occupy  any  position,  we  may 
represent  its  actual  appearance  upon  a  plane  inclined  in  any  posi- 
tion, so  as  to  be  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  object 
is  seen,  and  a  satisfactory  picture  will  result.  Such  drawings  are 
generally  made  to  show  the  facts  of  the  object  as  far  as  possible, 
and  are  scientific  rather  than  artistic;  and  the  object  would  be  placed 
so  as  to  present  these  facts,  which  would  then  be  represented  upon 
a  plane  which  would  often  be  parallel  to  the  principal  face  or  surface 
of  the  object. 

The  second  class  includes  all  illustrative  and  artistic  work. 

It  has  been  shown  that  the  picture  which,  when  viewed  naturally, 
produces  an  image  in  the  eye  like  that  which  the  object  would  produce 
must  be,  if  upon  a  plane,  on  one  which  is  perpendicular  to  the 
central  visual  ray.  But  we  have  seen  that  a  picture  on  an  inclined 
picture  plane  is  not  satisfactory,  and  that  the  drawing  which  the 
artist  makes  always  represents  vertical  lines  by  vertical  lines,  and 
that  in  effect  it  is  practically  what  is  given  by  drawing  on  a  vertical 
picture  plane  and  giving  the  visual  proportions  instead  of  the  elon- 
gated drawing  which  a  vertical  plane  produces  when  an  object  is 
above  or  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  so  that  the  visual  rays  pass 
through  it  obliquely. 

As  the  artist's  work  generally  represents  objects  near  the  eye  level, 
or  extending  about  equally  below  and  above  it,  and  not  causing  very 
large  visual  angles,  we  may  say  that,  practically,  he  makes  use  of  a 
vertical  picture  plane  perpendicular  to  the  central  visual  ray. 

If  an  exact  drawing  on  any  plane  is  to  be  made,  it  must  be  that 
on  a  vertical  picture  plane  ;  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  young 
pupil  consider  the  question  of  the  picture  plane,  for  he  should  be 
taught  to  draw  what  he  sees,  except  when  representing  vertical  lines 
which  appear  to  converge,  and  objects  placed  so  as  to  appear  like 


SCIENTIFIC  PERSPECTIVE  AND   MODEL   DRA  WING.    I  I  7 

Fig.  '^'^.  If  he  uses  the  slate  to  determine  the  proportions  of  an 
object,  he  should  hold  it  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  he 
sees  the  object,  and  should  change  the  drawing,  when  it  represents 
vertical  lines  by  inclined  lines,  by  substituting  vertical  for  the 
inclined  Hues.  He  should  measure  proportions  by  the  pencil  in  the 
same  way,  holding  it  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  in  which  he  sees 
the  object.  Practically,  objects  are  generally  so  little  above  or  below 
the  eye  level,  that  the  question  of  the  inclination  of  the  plane  is  of 
little  consequence  to  the  draughtsman  and  advanced  pupil.  If  pupils 
draw  upon  the  slate  from  objects  near  them,  and  are  too  young  to 
understand  how  to  change  the  drawing  by  representing  the  vertical 
edges  by  vertical  lines,  it  will  be  better  for  them  to  make  the  exact 
picture  or  tracing,  until  old  enough  to  change  it,  than  to  obtain  the 
idea  that  they  see  what  is  given  on  a  vertical  picture  plane ;  but  it 
is  not  necessary  for  pupils  to  think  of  the  picture  plane  even  when  _^ 
the  slate  is  used,  and  teachers  should  enable  pupils  to  draw  first  and  \ 
theorize  afterwards.  73-\t 

The  third  class  includes  all  pictures  representing  several  objects 
and  a  large  visual  angle. 

A  vertical  picture  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  central  visual  ray 
should  be  used  for  such  subjects ;  but  instead  of  making  the  exact 
perspective  drawing  of  small  objects  and  details  away  from  the 
centre  of  the  picture,  so  that  these  objects  are  distorted  unless  they 
are  foreshortened  by  being  seen  obliquely,  it  is  better  to  represent 
them  just  as  they  appear  when  it  is  not  necessary  to  show  their 
relative  positions.  Thus  the  circles  of  plinth  B,  Fig.  24,  appear  hori- 
zontal ellipses,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  the  representation  of 
plinth  B  should  not  be  exactly  like  that  of  plinth  A.  The  cube  at 
the  right  of  Fig.  41  is  distorted,  for  the  eye  sees  the  two  outer 
corners  of  the  top  face  on  the  same  level,  and  they  should  be  so 
represented  when  it  is  not  necessary  to  show  that  the  edges  of 
the  cube  are  parallel  to  those  of  the  box  upon  which  it  rests.  The 
cone  at  the  right  of  the  cube  can  be  represented  by  the  horizontal 
ellipse  which  the  eye  sees,  unless  it  is  tangent  to  a  square  (or  other 
figure)  which  is  situated  and  represented  as  is  the  top  of  either 
lower  cube  in  Fig.  33  ;  in  this  case  it  may  be  necessary,  in  order  to 
show  that  the  circle  is  tangent  to  the  square,  to  represent  it  by  an 


I  1 8  FREE-HAND   DRA  WING. 

inclined  ellipse.  In  the  same  way  the  objects  at  the  right  of  Fig.  43 
may  be  represented  as  they  appear,  and  any  object  situated  as  is  the 
pitcher  or  the  plinth  in  Fig.  46,  and  bounded  by  horizontal  circles, 
should  always  be  represented  as  it  appears.  The  objects  in  the 
lower  left  part  of  Fig.  47  are  not  distorted  as  much  as  they  are  in 
Fig.  46,  but  always  in  any  perspective  representation  for  artistic 
purposes  single  detached  objects  should  be  represented  just  as  they 
appear,  unless  it  is  necessary  to  show  their  relations  to  other  parts 
of  the  subject. 

Often,  however,  it  will  be  necessary  to  represent  objects  by  the  use 
of  one  vanishing  point  at  the  level  of  the  eye,  and  the  exact  parallel 
perspective  on  the  vertical  picture  plane  is  the  most  satisfactory 
representation  of  many  geometric  subjects.  The  pupil  may  obtain, 
when  sketching  from  nature,  the  proportions  of  such  a  drawing  by 
measuring  with  the  pencil  held  parallel  to  the  front  faces  of  the 
objects  instead  of  at  right  angles  to  the  directions  in  which  they  are 
seen.  The  simplest  and  surest  test  would  be  the  use  of  the  slate 
held  vertical  and  parallel  to  the  front  faces  of  the  objects. 

Note.  —  The  photographs  from  which  Figs.  49  and  50  were  made  have  been 
copyrighted  by  N.  L.  Stebbins,  132  Boylston  St.,  Boston.  Copies  will  be  printed 
to  order  by  him. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
COMPOSITION. 

Composition  means  the  arrangement  of  parts  to  produce  a  whoje, 
and  is  good  when  the  effect  produced  is  harmonious  and  pleasing. 
Composition  is  a  subject  which,  according  to  the  views  of  most  artists, 
cannot  be  taught.  Certainly  the  beauty  and  pleasure  which  are  due 
to  the  arrangements  produced  by  a  master  cannot  be  derived  from 
any  formal  application  of  principles,  derived  from  study  of  the  mas- 
ter's work;  and  those  without  genius  can  only  hope  to  produce  work 
which  does  not  violate  the  common  rules  of  good  taste. 

This  is  a  subject  with  which  little  can  be  done  in  the  public 
schools,  but  those  interested  in  it  will  do  well  to  read  John  Burnet's 
book  on  painting,  and  "  Elements  of  Drawing,"  by  Ruskin.  From 
the  latter  book,  the  following  extracts  are  taken  : 

"  Composition  means,  literally  and  simply,  putting  several  things  together, 
so  as  to  make  one  thing  out  of  them  ;  the  nature  and  goodness  of  which 
they  have  all  a  share  in  producing.  Thus  a  musician  composes  an  air,  by 
putting  notes  together  in  certain  relations  ;  a  poet  composes  a  poem  by  put- 
ting thoughts  and  words  in  pleasant  order ;  and  a  painter  a  picture,  by  put- 
ting thoughts,  forms,  and  colors  in  pleasant  order." 

"In  all  these  cases,  observe,  an  intended  unity  must  be  the  result  of 
composition.  A  paver  cannot  be  said  to  compose  the  heap  of  stones 
which  he  empties  from  his  cart,  nor  the  sower  the  handful  of  seed  which  he 
scatters  from  his  hand.  It  is  the  essence  of  composition  that  everything 
should  be  in  a  determined  place,  perform  an  intended  part,  and  act,  in  that 
part,  advantageously  for  everything  that  is  connected  with  it.  .  .  . 

"  In  a  well-composed  air,  no  note,  however  short  or  low,  can  be  spared.  .  .  . 
In  a  good  poem,  each  word  and  thought  enhances  the  value  of  those  which 
precede  and  follow  it ;  and  every  syllable  has  a  loveliness  which  depends 
not  so  much  on  its  abstract  sound  as  on  its  position." 

"  Much  more  in  a  great  picture  ;  every  line  and  color  is  so  arranged  as 
to  advantage  the  rest.  None  are  inessential,  however  slight ;  and  none  are 
independent,  however  forcible.  It  is  not  enough  that  they  truly  represent 
natural  objects,  but  they  must  fit  into  certain  places,  and  gather  in  certain 


I20  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

harmonious  groups ;  so  that,  for  instance,  the  red  chimney  of  a  cottage  is 
not  merely  set  in  its  place  as  a  chimney,  but  that  it  may  affect,  in  a  certain 
way  pleasurable  to  the  eye,  the  pieces  of  green  or  blue  in  other  parts  of  the 
picture ;  and  we  ought  to  see  that  the  work  is  masterly,  merely  by  the  posi- 
tions and  quantities  of  these  patches  of  green,  red,  and  blue,  even  at  a  dis- 
tance which  renders  it  perfectly  impossible  to  determine  what  the  colors 
represent,  or  to  see  whether  the  red  is  a  chimney  or  an  old  woman's  cloak, 
and  wheth^  the  blue  is  smoke,  sky,  or  water." 

"It  seems  to  be  appointed,  in  order  to  remind  us,  in  all  we  do,  of  the 
great  laws  of  Divine  government  and  human  polity,  that  composition  in  the 
arts  should  strongly  affect  every  order  of  mind,  however  unlearned  or 
thoughtless.  Hence  the  popular  delight  in  rhythm  and  metre,  and  in  simple 
musical  melodies.  But  it  is  also  appointed  that  power  of  composition  in  the 
fine  arts  should  be  an  exclusive  attribute  of  great  intellect.  All  men  can 
more  or  less  copy  what  they  see,  and,  more  or  less,  remember  it.  .  .  .  But 
the  gift  of  composition  is  not  given  at  all  to  more  than  one  man  in  a  thou- 
sand ;  in  its  highest  range,  it  does  not  occur  above  three  or  four  times  in  a 
century." 

"It  follows,  from  these  general  truths,  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  rules 
which  will  enable  you  to  compose.  You  might  much  more  easily  receive 
rules  to  enable  you  to  be  witty.  If  it  were  possible  to  be  witty  by  rule,  wit 
would  cease  to  be  either  admirable  or  amusing ;  if  it  were  possible  to  com- 
pose melody  by  rule,  Mozart  and  Cimarosa  need  not  have  been  born  ;  if  it 
were  possible  to  compose  pictures  by  rule,  Titian  and  Veronese  would  be 
ordinary  men..  The  essence  of  composition  lies  precisely  in  the  fact  of  its 
being  unteachable,  in  its  being  the  operation  of  an  individual  mind  of  range 
and  power  exalted  above  others." 

"  But  though  no  one  czn  mvent  by  rule,  there  are  some  simple  laws  of 
arrangement  which  it  is  well  for  you  to  know,  because,  though  they  will  not 
enable  you  to  produce  a  good  picture,  they  will  often  assist  you  to  set  forth 
what  goodness  may  be  in  your  work  in  a  more  telling  way  than  you  could 
have  done  otherwise ;  and,  by  tracing  them  in  the  work  of  good  composers, 
you  may  better  understand  the  grasp  of  their  imagination,  and  the  power  it 
possesses  over  their  materials." 

Mr.  Ruskin  states  the  following  to  be  the  chief  laws  governing 
composition : 

First.         "  The  Law  of  Principality." 
Second.     "  The  Law  of  Repetition." 
Third.        "  The  Law  of  Continuity." 


COMPOSITION.  I  2  I 

Fourth.  "  The  Law  of  Curvature." 

Fifth.  "  The  Law  of  Radiation." 

Sixth.  "  The  Law  of  Contrast." 

Seventh.  "  The  Law  of  Interchange." 

Eighth.  "  The  Law  of  Consistency." 

Ninth.  "The  Law  of  Harmony." 

"  The  Law  of  Principality  "  deals  with  the  unity  of  the  composition  ; 
"  that  is,  to  make  out  of  many  things  one  whole  ;  the  first  mode  in  which 
this  can  be  effected  is,  by  determining  that  one  feature  shall  be  more  impor- 
tant than  the  rest,  and  that  the  others  shall  group  with  it." 

"  The  Law  of  Repetition  "  concerns  the  expression  of  "  sympathy  among 
the  different  objects,  and  perhaps  the  pleasantest,  because  most  surprising, 
kind  of  sympathy,  is  when  one  group  imitates  or  repeats  another  ;  not  in 
the  way  of  balance  or  symmetry,  but  subordinately,  like  a  far-away  and 
broken  echo  of  it.  .  .  . 

"  Symmetry,  or  the  balance  of  parts  or  masses  in  nearly  equal  opposition, 
is  one  of  the  conditions  of  treatment  under  the  law  of  Repetition.  .  .  . 

"  Symmetry  in  Nature  is,  however,  never  formal  nor  accurate.  She 
takes  the  greatest  care  to  secure  some  difference  between  the  corresponding 
things  or  parts  of  things ;  and  an  approximation  to  accurate  symmetry  is 
only  permitted  in  animals  because  their  motions  secure  perpetual  difference 
between  the  balancing  parts.  ... 

"  The  Law  of  Continuity  "  concerns  the  "  pleasurable  way  of  expressing 
unity  by  giving  some  orderly  succession  to  a  number  of  objects  more  or  less 
similar.  And  this  succession  is  most  interesting  when  it  is  connected  with 
some  gradual  change  in  the  aspect  or  character  of  the  objects.  .  .  .  If  there 
be  no  change  at  all  in  the  shape  or  size  of  the  objects,  there  is  no  continuity  ; 
there  is  only  repetition  —  monotony." 

"  The  Law  of  Curvature  "  is  the  law  of  beauty.  "  All  beautiful  objects 
whatsoever  are  terminated  by  delicately  curved  lines,  except  where  the 
straight  line  is  indispensable  to  their  use  or  stability.  .  .  . 

"  As  curves  are  more  beautiful  than  straight  lines,  it  is  necessary  to  a 
good  composition  that  its  continuities  of  object,  mass,  or  color  should  be,  if 
possible,  in  curves,  rather  than  straight  lines  or  angular  ones.  .  .  . 

"  The  Law  of  Radiation  "  enforces  unison  of  action  in  arising  from,  or 
proceeding  to,  some  given  point.  It  treats  of  the  harmonious  grouping  of 
lines  which  spring  from  or  are  directed  to  a  single  point. 

"  The  Law  of  Contrast."  "  Of  course,  the  character  of  everything  is 
best  manifested  by  Contrast.  Rest  can  only  be  enjoyed  after  labor  ;  sound, 
to  be  heard  clearly,  must  rise  out  of  silence  ;  light  is  exhibited  by  darkness, 


122  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

darkness  by  light ;  and  so  on  in  all  things.  Now  in  art  every  color  has  an 
opponent  color,  which,  if  brought  near  it,  will  relieve  it  more  completely 
than  any  other ;  so,  also,  every  form  and  line  may  be  made  more  striking 
to  the  eye  by  an  opponent  form  or  line  near  them  ;  a  curved  line  is  set  off 
by  a  straight  one,  a  massy  form  by  a  slight  one,  and  so  on ;  and  in  all  good 
work,  nearly  double  the  value,  which  any  given  color  or  form  would  have 
uncombined,  is  given  to  each  by  contrast 

"In  tl^s  case  again,  however,  a  too  manifest  use  of  the  artifice  vulgar- 
izes a  picture.  Great  painters  do  not  commonly,  or  very  visibly,  admit 
violent  contrast.  They  introduce  it  by  stealth  and  with  intermediate  links 
of  tender  change  ;  allowing,  indeed,  the  opposition  to  tell  upon  the  mind  as 
a  surprise,  but  not  as  a  shock." 

"  The  Law  of  Interchange  "  concerns  the  alternation  of  light  and  dark 
and  color,  by  means  of  which  the  unity  of  opposite  things  is  enforced,  by 
giving  to  each  a  portion  of  the  character  of  the  other. 

'•  One  of  the  most  curious  facts  which  will  impress  itself  upon  you,  when 
you  have  drawn  some  time  carefully  from  Nature  in  light  and  shade,  is  the 
appearance  of  intentional  artifice  with  which  contrasts  of  this  alternate  kind 
are  produced  by  her ;  the  artistry  with  which  she  will  darken  a  tree  trunk 
as  long  as  it  comes  against  light  sky,  and  throw  sunlight  on  it  precisely  at 
the  spot  where  it  comes  against  a  dark  hill,  and  similarly  treat  all  her 
masses  of  shade  and  color,  is  so  great,  that  if  you  only  follow  her  closely, 
every  one  who  looks  at  your  drawing  with  attention  will  think  that  you 
have  been  inventing  the  most  artificially  and  unnaturally  delightful  inter- 
change of  shadow  that  could  possibly  be  devised  by  human  wit."  ^ 

"  The  Law  of  Consistency  "  bears  principally  "  on  the  separate  masses 
or  divisions  of  a  picture :  the  character  of  the  whole  composition  may  be 
broken  or  various,  if  we  please,  but  there  must  certainly  be  a  tendency  to 
consistent  assemblage  in  its  divisions.  As  an  army  may  act  on  several 
points  at  once,  but  can  only  act  effectually  by  having  somewhere  formed 
and  regular  masses,  and  not  wholly  by  skirmishers  ;  so  a  picture  may  be 
various  in  its  tendencies,  but  must  be  somewhere  united  and  coherent  in 
its  masses.  Good  composers  are  always  associating  their  colors  in  great 
groups  ;  binding  their  forms  together  by  encompassing  lines,  and  securing, 
by  various  dexterities  of  expedient,  what  they  themselves  call  'breadth': 
that  is  to  say,  a  large  gathering  of  each  kind  of  thing  into  one  place  ;  light 
being  gathered  to  light,  darkness  to  darkness,  and  color  to  color.  If,  how- 
ever, this  be  done  by  introducing  false  lights  or  false  colors,  it  is  absurd 

1  This  sentence  probably  means  that  those  not  students  of  nature  will  think 
true  studies  "artificial  and  unnatural." 


COMPOSITION. 


123 


and  monstrous  \  the  skill  of  a  painter  consists  in  obtaining  breadth  by 
rational  arrangement  of  his  objects,  not  by  forced  or  wanton  treatment  of 
them.  .  .  .  Generally  speaking,  however,  breadth  will  result  in  sufficient 
degree  from  fidelity  of  study  :  Nature  is  always  broad ;  and  if  you  paint 
her  colors  in  true  relations,  you  will  paint  them  in  majestic  masses.  If  you 
find  your  work  look  broken  and  scattered,  it  is,  in  all  probability,  not  only 
ill  composed,  but  untrue." 

"  The  Law  of  Harmony."  "  There  are  all  kinds  of  harmonies  in  a 
picture,  according  to  its  mode  of  production.  There  is  even  a  harmony  of 
touch.  If  you  paint  one  part  of  it  very  rapidly  and  forcibly,  and  another 
part  slowly  and  delicately,  each  division  of  the  picture  may  be  right  sepa- 
rately, but  they  will  not  agree  together :  the  whole  will  be  effectless  and 
valueless,  out  of  harmony.  Similarly,  if  you  paint  one  part  of  it  by  a  yellow 
light  in  a  warm  day,  and  another  by  a  gray  light  in  a  cold  day,  though  both 
may  have  been  sunlight,  and  both  may  be  well  toned,  and  have  their  rela- 
tive shadows  truly  cast,  neither  will  look  like  light :  they  will  destroy  each 
other's  power,  by  being  out  of  harmony.  These  are  only  broad  and  defin- 
able instances  of  discordance  ;  but  there  is  an  extent  of  harmony  in  all  good 
work  much  too  subtle  for  definition  ;  depending  on  the  draughtsman's  carry- 
ing everything  he  draws  up  to  just  the  balancing  and  harmonious  point,  in 
finish,  and  color,  and  depth  of  tone,  and  intensity  of  moral  feeling,  and  style 
of  touch,  all  considered  at  once ;  and  never  allowing  himself  to  lean  too 
emphatically  on  detached  parts,  or  exalt  one  thing  at  the  expense  of  an- 
other, or  feel  acutely  in  one  place  and  coldly  in  another." 

The  chapter  from  which  these  notes  are  taken  is  most  interest- 
ing. Throughout  Ruskin's  works  there  are  the  most  valuable  and 
modern  ideas  on  art,  in  even  its  most  recent  phase  of  impressionism. 
It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  'these  views,  which  have  so  recently  become 
somewhat  generally  understood,  with  other  statements  by  Ruskin, 
which  are  of  an  entirely  different  nature,  and  which,  carried  out, 
will  tend  to  produce  no  more  artistic  work  than  the  paintings  done 
by  Ruskin  himself.  Seeing  these  paintings,  it  is  difficult  to  believe 
that  the  theories  underlying  the  luminous  and  bright  paintings  of 
to-day  are  not  due  much  more  to  Turner,  who  is  admitted  to  be  one 
of  the  first  impressionists,  than  they  are  to  Ruskin,  who,  as  his  friend, 
must  have  received  from  him  inspiration  for  much  that  is  good  in  his 
writings. 

The  following  paragraphs  on  Composition  are  taken  from  John 
Burnet's  book  on  Painting  : 


124  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

"  Composition  is  the  art  of  arranging  figures  or  objects,  so  as  to  adapt 
them  to  any  particular  subject.  In  composition,  four  requisites  are  neces- 
sary:—  that  the  story  be  well  told;  that  it  possess  a  good  general  form ; 
that  it  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  capable  of  receiving  a  proper  effect  of  light 
and  shade  ;  and  that  it  be  susceptible  of  an  agreeable  disposition  of  color. 
The  form  of  a  composition  is  best  suggested  by  the  subject  or  design,  as 
the  fitness  of  the  adaptation  ought  to  appear  to  emanate  from  the  circum- 
stances tht^selves  ;  hence  the  variety  of  compositions. 

"  To  secure  a  good  general  form  in  composition,  it  is  necessary  that  it 
should  be  as  simple  as  possible.  A  confused,  complicated  form  may  hide 
the  art,  but  can  never  invite  the  attention.  Whether  this  is  to  be  produced 
by  a  breadth  of  light  and  shade,  which  is  often  the  case  with  Rembrandt, 
even  on  a  most  complicated  outline,  or  by  the  simple  arrangement  of  color, 
as  we  often  find  in  Titian  or  Raff aelle's  works,  must  depend  upon  the  state 
of  the  artist.  It  is  sufficient  to  direct  the  younger  students  to  this  par- 
ticular, their  minds  being  generally  carried  away  by  notions  of  variety  and 
contrast. 

"  As  I  have  made  use  of  the  terms  '  beautiful  and  agreeable  arrange- 
ments,' it  is  proper  to  give  an  explanation  of  the  sense  in  which  they  are 
applied.  By  a  beautiful  arrangement,  I  mean  a  proper  adaptation  of  those 
principles  that  arrest  a  common  observer,  and  give  a  pleasurable  sensation, 
which  to  a  cultivated  mind  increases  (not  diminishes)  by  the  investigation 
of  the  cause  which  produces  it.  For  example,  a  beautiful  appearance  in 
nature  affects  the  savage  and  the  philosopher  from  their  sensations  merely 
as  men;  but  a  painter,  whose  life  is  spent  in  a  constant  competition  with 
nature  in  producing  the  same  effects,  receives  a  tenfold  gratification  in  fol- 
lowing her  through  those  assemblages  which  to  the  world  beside  are,  as  it 
were,  '  a  fountain  sealed  and  a  book  shut  up.'  Hence,  in  art,  a  beautiful 
arrangement  must  be  a  selection  of  those  forms,  lights,  and  colors  that  pro- 
duce a  similar  result ;  and  the  taste  of  an  artist  is  shown  in  heightening 
their  effect  by  the  absence  of  those  circumstances  which  are  found  by  expe- 
rience to  produce  the  contrary.  Did  an  investigation  of  the  means  pursued 
by  the  great  masters  tend  to  abridge  an  artist's  pleasurable  sensations, 
instead  of  being  the  most  favored,  he  would  be  rendered  the  most  miserable 
of  beings;  but  the  opposite  is  the  case,  as  by  such  means  he  is  taught  an 
alphabet  that  enables  him  to  understand  the  language  of  nature.  It  may  be 
supposed,  that  in  my  search  after  so  desirable  an  object,  I  have  perused  all 
the  works  written  to  define  Beaut}'^  and  Taste,  and  which  endeavor  to  cir- 
cumscribe with  a  line  that  endless  variety  and  omnipresence  which  make 
nature  a  source  of  gratification  to  all  natures  under  every  alteration  of  the 


COMPOSITION.  125 

mind;  but  as  I  wish  to  avoid  all  controversy  on  the  subject,  which  we  often 
find  merely  renders  the  most  sublime  truths  more  obscure,  I  shall  only  re- 
mark that,  as  far  as  painting  is  concerned,  the  authors  of  many  of  these 
works  have  done  an  irreparable  injury.  Artists  generally  prefer  the  opin- 
ions of  untutored  children  to  the  remarks  of  the  most  learned  philosophers, 
whose  advancement  in  other  sciences  really  seems  to  increase  their  igno- 
rance of  this.  If  I  have  explained  my  definition  of  the  terms  sufficiently  for 
the  artist's  comprehension,  I  am  satisfied.  To  explain  them  to  others, 
would  be  as  equally  impossible  as  that  those  others  should  define  them  to  us. 
The  mind  must  have  received  its  education  through  the  medium  of  the  eye, 
not  of  the  ear,  to  enjoy  the  faculty  of  conceiving  such  ideas,  or  the  power  of 
tracing  them  to  their  original  source  in  nature,  or  in  art,  as  a  test  of  their 
truth." 

The  following  paragraphs  on  Composition  are  taken  from  Sir 
Joshua  Reynold's  Work: 

Discourse  VIII. 

"  To  apply  these  general  observations,  which  belong  equally  to  all  arts, 
to  ours  in  particular.  In  a  composition,  when  the  objects  are  scattered  and 
divided  into  many  equal  parts,  the  eye  is  perplexed  and  fatigued,  from  not 
knowing  where  to  find  the  principal  action,  or  which  is  the  principal  figure ; 
for  where  all  are  making  equal  pretensions  to  notice,  all  are  in  equal  danger 
of  neglect. 

"  The  expression  which  is  used  very  often,  on  these  occasions  is,  the 
piece  wants  repose;  a  word  which  perfectly  expresses  a  relief  of  the  mind 
from  that  state  of  hurry  and  anxiety  which  it  suffers,  when  looking  at  a 
work  of  this  character. 

"  On  the  other  hand  absolute  unity,  that  is,  a  large  work,  consisting  of 
one  group  or  mass  of  light  only,  would  be  as  defective  as  an  heroic  poem 
without  episode,  or  any  collateral  incidents  to  recreate  the  mind  with  that 
variety  which  it  always  requires. 

"  It  is  given  as  a  rule  by  Fresnoy,  That  the  principal  figure  of  a  subject 
must  appear  in  the  midst  of  the  picture^  wider  the  principal  lights  to  dis- 
tinguish it  frotn  the  rest.  A  painter  who  should  think  himself  obliged 
strictly  to  follow  this  rule,  would  encumber  himself  with  needless  difficulties; 
he  would  be  confined  to  great  uniformity  of  composition  and  be  deprived  of 
many  beauties  which  are  incompatible  with  its  observance.  The  meaning 
of  this  rule  extends,  or  ought  to  extend,  no  further  than  this :  —  That  the 
principal  figure  should  be  immediately  distinguished  at  the  first  glance  of 


126  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

the  eye;  but  there  is  no  necessity  that  the  principal  light  should  fall  on  the 
principal  figure,  or  that  the  principal  figure  should  be  in  the  middle  of  the 
picture.  It  is  sufficient  that  it  be  distinguished  by  its  place,  or  by  the 
attention  of  other  figures  pointing  it  out  to  the  spectator.  So  far  is  this 
rule  from  being  indispensable,  that  it  is  very  seldom  practiced,  other  con- 
siderations of  greater  consequence  often  standing  in  the  way.  Examples  in 
opposition  to  this  rule,  are  found  in  the  Cartoons,  in  Christ's  Charge  to 
Peter,  the^reaching  of  St.  Paul,  and  Elymas  the  Sorcerer,  who  is  undoubt- 
edly the  principal  object  in  that  picture.  In  none  of  these  compositions  is 
the  principal  figure  in  the  middle  of  the  picture.  In  the  very  admirable 
composition  of  the  Tent  of  Darius,  by  LeBrun,  Alexander  is  not  in  the 
middle  of  the  picture,  nor  does  the  principal  light  fall  on  him;  but  the  at- 
tention of  all  the  other  figures  immediately  distinguishes  him,  and  distin- 
guishes him  more  properly;  the  greatest  light  falls  on  the  daughter  of 
Darius,  who  is  in  the  middle  of  the  picture,  where  it  is  more  necessary  the 
principal  light  should  be  placed." 


Discourse  III. 

"  Having  gone  thus  far  in  our  investigation  of  the  great  style  in  paint- 
ing,—  if  we  now  should  suppose  that  the  artist  has  found  the  true  idea  of 
beauty,  which  enables  him  to  give  his  works  a  correct  and  perfect  design,  — 
if  we  should  suppose,  also,  that  he  has  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  unadulter- 
ated habits  of  Nature,  which  gives  him  simplicity,  —  the  rest  of  his  task  is, 
perhaps,  less  than  is  generally  imagined.  Beauty  and  simplicity  have  so  great 
a  share  in  the  composition  of  a  great  style,  that  he  who  has  acquired  them 
has  little  else  to  learn.  It  must  not,  indeed,  be  forgotten,  that  there  is  a 
nobleness  of  conception,  which  goes  beyond  anything  in  the  mere  exhibition 
even  of  perfect  form  ;  there  is  an  art  of  animating  and  dignifying  the  figures 
with  intellectual  grandeur,  of  impressing  the  appearance  of  philosophic 
wisdom,  or  heroic  virtue.  This  can  only  be  acquired  by  him  who  enlarges 
the  sphere  of  his  understanding  by  a  variety  of  knowledge,  and  varies  his 
imagination  with  the  best  productions  of  ancient  and  modern  poetry. 

"  A  hand  thus  exercised,  and  a  mind  thus  instructed,  will  bring  the  Art 
to  a  higher  degree  of  excellence  than  perhaps  it  has  hitherto  attained  in  this 
country.  Such  a  student  will  disdain  the  humbler  walks  of  painting,  which, 
however  profitable,  can  never  assure  him  a  permanent  reputation.  He  will 
leave  the  meaner  Artist  servilely  to  suppose  that  those  are  the  best  pictures 
which  are  most  likely  to  deceive  the  spectator.  He  will  permit  the  lower 
painter,  like  the  florist  or  collector  of  shells,  to  exhibit  the  minute  discrim- 


COMPOSITION. 


127 


inations,  which  distinguish  one  object  of  the  same  species  from  another ; 
while  he,  like  the  philosopher,  will  consider  Nature  in  the  abstract,  and 
represent  in  every  one  of  his  figures  the  character  of  its  species. 

"  If  deceiving  the  eye  were  the  only  business  of  the  Art,  there  is  no 
doubt,  indeed,  but  the  minute  painter  would  be  more  apt  to  succeed  ;  but 
it  is  not  the  eye,  it  is  the  mind  which  the  painter  of  genius  desires  to 
address  ;  nor  will  he  waste  a  moment  upon  those  smaller  objects  which  only 
serve  to  catch  the  sense,  to  divide  the  attention,  and  to  counteract  his  great 
design  of  speaking  to  the  heart. 

"  This  is  the  ambition  which  I  wish  to  excite  in  your  minds ;  and  the 
object  I  have  had  in  my  view  throughout  this  discourse,  is  that  one  great 
idea  which  gives  to  painting  its  true  dignity,  which  entitles  it  to  the  name 
of  a  Liberal  Art,  and  makes  it  a  sister  of  poetry." 

The  preceding  pages  present  the  principles  underlying  the  ar- 
rangement of  a  work  of  art.  Those  who  wish  to  study  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  should  read  Burnet's  book,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable,  and  covers  all  the  subjects  relating  to  painting. 

The  impossibility  of  teaching  composition,  and  especially  in  the 
public  schools,  has  been  shown.  Though  little  can  be  done,  the 
subject  should  not  be  wholly  neglected.  The  most  valuable  educa- 
tion in  it  will  be  given  by  study  of  the  works  of  the  best  masters, 
which  should  be  placed  in  every  schoolroom  where  they  can  be  seen 
by  all  the  pupils.  These  works  will  exert  an  influence  for  good 
upon  all. 

The  principles  explained  apply  not  only  to  the  arrangement  of 
pictures,  but  to  the  simple  subjects  which  are  suitable  for  study  in 
the  public  schools ;  and  a  proper  arrangement  of  these  objects  is  so 
simple  that  the  principles  will  be  readily  applied  by  those  who  are 
not  artists,  or  trained  to  perceive  the  finest  sensations. 

The  result  of  all  study  of  this  subject  will  be  to  enforce  the 
necessity  of  simplicity  and  breadth  in  form,  in  light  and  shade,  and 
in  color.  There  must  be  a  point  of  principal  interest,  a  point  to  which 
all  others  are  subordinate,  and  the  drawing  or  picture  must  explain 
itself  at  a  glance. 

In  the  lower  grades  when  pupils  draw  from  a  single  object,  they 
must  place  the  drawing  in  a  pleasing  manner  upon  the  paper,  and 
make  it  the  size  which  will  produce  the  best  effect.     Many  pupils 


128  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

will  make  a  minute  drawing,  and  place  it  in  one  corner  of  the 
sheet ;  others  will  make  a  drawing  which  extends  to  the  edges 
of  the  paper,  and  often  should  go  beyond  the  edge  in  one  or  two 
directions.  But  few  will  make  the  drawing  the  best  size,  or  place 
it  properly. 

A  common  mistake  is  to  place  the  drawing  very  near  the  lower 
edge  of  the  paper.  The  effect  produced  by  this  is  very  unpleasant, 
for  the  drawing  should  have  as  much  space  below  it  as  above,  and 
often  more.  Without  this  space  the  perspective  effect  is  destroyed. 
Teachers  must  insist  that  the  blocking-in  lines  be  drawn  so  as  to 
give  a  drawing  of  the  best  size  for  the  paper,  and  well  placed  upon  it. 

When  two  or  more  objects  are  placed  together,  there  is  the  ques- 
tion of  their  choice  and  arrangement.  From  what  has  been  said,  it 
w^ill  be  seen  that  objects  which  are  entirely  unrelated  cannot  be 
arranged  to  convey  an  idea.  Objects  should  be  arranged  so  as  not 
to  produce  a  scattered  and  spotty  effect,  and  they  should  not  be  of 
the  same  size  or  shape  ;  one  object  should  be  important  through  size, 
and  color,  and  position.  They  should  be  arranged  so  as  to  avoid  the 
monotony  due  to  long  and  absolutely  unbroken  lines,  and  the  prin- 
cipal object  should  not  be  placed  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  page. 
It  is  better  to  have  simple  backgrounds,  to  concentrate  the  objects 
and  keep  them  one  side  of  the  centre,  than  to  cover  the  background 
equally  by  the  objects.  An  odd  number  of  objects  is  better  than 
an  even,  and  they  should  be  arranged  so  that  there  shall  be  one 
principal  high  light  and  at  least  two  secondary  lights  in  the  group. 
The  effect  of  light  and  dark  must  be  simple  and  produced  by 
masses  of  light  in  contrast  with  masses  of  dark.  Groups  should 
be  arranged  so  that  the  foregrounds  appear  lighter  than  the  back- 
grounds. 

Burnet  divides  composition  into  two  classes,  angular  and  circular. 
In  angular,  the  objects  are  arranged  so  that  the  important  lines  form 
a  mass  whose  general  shape  is  triangular.  In  circular,  the  impor- 
tant lines  are  circular  or  elliptical.  A  subject  should  always  be  com- 
posed so  as  to  come  under  one  class  or  the  other.  The  angular 
form  is  the  most  simple  for  groups  of  still  life,  and  is  usually 
adopted  for  these  subjects.  The  illustrations  show  the  triangular 
form. 


COMPOSITION. 


129 


The  following  extracts  from  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds'  Discourses  are 
given  on  account  of  their  special  value  in  connection  with  the  subject 
of  this  book  and  chapter  : 

Discourse   V. 

"  There  is  another  caution  which  I  wish  to  give  you.  Be  as  select  in 
those  whom  you  endeavor  to  please,  as  in  those  whom  you  endeavor  to  imi- 
tate. Without  the  love  of  fame,  you  can  never  do  anything  excellent ;  but 
by  an  excessive  and  undistinguishing  thirst  after  it,  you  will  come  to  have 
vulgar  views  ;  you  will  degrade  your  style  ;  and  your  taste  will  be  entirely 
corrupted.  It  is  certain  that  the  lowest  style  will  be  the  most  popular,  as  it 
falls  within  the  compass  of  ignorance  itself ;  and  the  vulgar  will  always  be 
pleased  with  what  is  natural,  in  the  confined  and  misunderstood  sense  of 
the  word." 

Discourse  VII. 

"  Whoever  would  reform  a  nation,  supposing  a  bad  taste  to  prevail  in  it, 
will  not  accomplish  his  purpose  by  going  directly  against  the  stream  of  their 
prejudices.  Men's  minds  must  be  prepared  to  receive  what  is  new  to  them. 
Reformation  is  a  work  of  time.  A  national  taste,  however  wrong  it  may  be, 
cannot  be  totally  changed  at  once  ;  we  must  yield  a  httle  to  the  preposses- 
sion which  has  taken  hold  on  the  mind,  and  we  may  then  bring  people  to 
adopt  what  would  offend  them,  if  endeavored  to  be  introduced  by  violence." 


Discourse  XII. 

''  Treatises  on  education  and  methods  of  study  have  always  appeared  to 
me  to  have  one  general  fault.  They  proceed  upon  a  false  supposition  of 
life  ;  as  if  we  possessed  not  only  a  power  over  events  and  circumstances. 


130  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

but  had  a  greater  power  over  ourselves  than  I  believe  any  of  us  will  be 
found  to  possess.  Instead  of  supposing  ourselves  to  be  perfect  patterns  of 
wisdom  and  virtue,  it  seems  to  me  more  reasonable  to  treat  ourselves  (as  I 
am  sure  we  must  now  and  then  treat  others)  like  humorsome  children, 
whose  fancies  are  often  to  be  indulged  in  order  to  keep  them  in  good  humor 
with  themselves  and  their  pursuits." 

*•  Discourse   I. 

"  I  must  beg  leave  to  submit  one  thing  to  the  consideration  of  the  visi- 
tors, which  appears  to  me  a  matter  of  very  great  consequence,  and  the  omis- 
sion of  which  I  think  a  principal  defect  in  the  method  of  education  pursued 
in  all  the  academies  I  have  ever  visited.  The  error  I  mean  is,  that  the 
students  never  draw  exactly  from  the  living  models  which  they  have  before 
them.  It  is  not,  indeed,  their  intention  ;  nor  are  they  directed  to  do  it. 
Their  drawings  resemble  the  model  only  in  the  attitude.  They  change  the 
form  according  to  their  vague  and  uncertain  ideas  of  beauty,  and  make  a 
drawing  rather  of  what  they  think  the  figure  ought  to  be,  than  of  what  it 
appears.  I  have  thought  this  the  obstacle  that  has  stopped  the  progress  of 
many  young  men  of  real  genius  ;  and  I  very  much  question  whether  a  habit 
of  drawing  correctly  what  we  see,  will  not  give  a  proportionable  power  of 
drawing  exactly  what  we  imagine.  He  who  endeavors  to  copy  nicely  the 
figure  before  him,  not  only  acquires  a  habit  of  exactness  and  precision,  but 
is  continually  advancing  in  his  knowledge  of  the  human  figure  ;  and  though 
he  seems  to  superficial  observers  to  make  a  slower  progress,  he  will  be  found 
at  last  capable  of  adding  (without  running  into  capricious  wildness)  that 
grace  and  beauty,  which  is  necessary  to  be  given  to  his  more  finished  works, 
and  which  cannot  be  got  by  the  moderns,  as  it  was  not  acquired  by  the 
ancients,  but  by  an  attentive  and  well-compared  study  of  the  human  form." 

Discourse  XII. 

"  However,  I  would  not  be  understood  to  extend  this  doctrine  to  the 
younger  students.  The  first  part  of  the  life  of  a  student,  like  that  of  other 
school  boys,  must  necessarily  be  a  life  of  restraint.  The  grammar,  the  rudi- 
ments, however  unpalatable,  must  at  all  events  be  mastered.  After  a  habit 
is  acquired  of  drawing  correctly  from  the  model  (whatever  it  may  be)  which 
he  has  before  him,  the  rest,  I  think,  may  be  safely  left  to  chance;  always 
supposing  that  the  student  is  employed.,  and  that  his  studies  are  directed  to 
the  proper  object." 


COMPOSITION.  I  3 1 


Discourse  XI. 


"  The  properties  of  all  objects,  so  far  as  a  painter  is  concerned  with 
them  are,  the  outline  or  drawing,  the  color,  and  the  light  and  shade.  The 
drawing  gives  the  forms  ;  the  color,  visible  quahty  ;  and  the  light  and  shade, 
its  solidity. 

"  Excellence  in  any  one  of  these  parts  of  art  will  never  be  acquired  by 
an  artist,  unless  he  has  the  habit  of  looking  upon  objects  at  large,  and  ob- 
serving the  effect  which  they  have  on  the  eye  when  it  is  dilated,  and  em- 
ployed upon  the  whole,  without  seeing  any  of  the  parts  distinctly.  It  is  by 
this  that  we  obtain  the  ruling  characteristic,  and  that  we  learn  to  imitate  it 
by  short  and  dexterous  methods.  I  do  not  mean  by  dexterity,  a  trick,  or 
mechanical  habit,,  formed  by  guess  and  established  by  custom;  but  that 
science  which,  by  a  profound  knowledge  of  ends  and  means,  discovers  the 
shortest  and  surest  way  to  its  own  purpose. 

"  If  we  examine  with  a  critical  view  the  manner  of  those  painters  whom 
we  consider  as  patterns,  we  shall  find  that  their  great  fame  does  not  pro- 
ceed from  their  works  being  more  highly  finished  than  those  of  other 
artists,  or  from  a  more  minute  attention  to  details,  but  from  that  enlarged 
comprehension  which  sees  the  whole  object  at  once,  and  that  energy  of  art 
which  gives  its  characteristic  effect  by  adequate  expression." 

Discourse  XII. 

"It  is  not  uncommon  to  meet  with  artists  who,  from  a  long  neglect  of 
cultivating  this  intimacy  with  Nature,  do  not  even  know  her  when  they  see 
her;  she  appearing  a  stranger  to  them,  from  their  being  so  habituated  to 
their  own  representation  of  her.  I  have  heard  painters  acknowledge, 
though  in  that  acknowledgment  no  degradation  of  themselves  was  intended, 
that  they  could  do  better  without  Nature  than  with  her;  or,  as  they  ex- 
pressed it  themselves,  that  it  only  put  them  out.  A  painter,  with  such 
ideas  and  such  habits,  is  indeed  in  a  most  hopeless  state.  The  art  of  seeing 
Nature.,  or,  in  other  words,  the  art  of  using  models,  is  in  reality  the  great 
object,  the  point  to  which  all  our  studies  are  directed.  As  for  the  power  of 
being  able  to  do  tolerably  well,  from  practice  alone,  let  it  be  valued  accord- 
ing to  its  worth.  But  I  do  not  see  in  what  manner  it  can  be  sufficient  for 
the  production  of  correct,  excellent,  and  finished  pictures.  Works  deserv- 
ing this  character  never  were  produced,  nor  ever  will  arise,  from  memory 
alone;  and  I  will  venture  to  say,  that  an  artist  who  brings  to  his  work  a 
mind  tolerably  furnished  with  the  general  principles  of  art,  and  a  taste 


132 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


formed  upon  the  works  of  good  artists,  in  short,  who  knows  in  wTiat  excel- 
lence consists,  will,  with  the  assistance  of  models,  which  we  will  likewise 
suppose  he  has  learned  the  art  of  using,  be  an  over-match  for  the  greatest 
painter  that  ever  lived  who  should  be  debarred  such  advantages." 

Discourse  X. 

"  What*j§[race  is,  how  it  is  acquired  or  conceived,  are  in  speculation  dif- 
ficult questions:  but  causa  latet^  res  est  notisswta :  without  any  perplexing 
inquiry,  the  effect  is  hourly  perceived.  I  shall  only  observe,  that  its  natural 
foundation  is  correctness  of  design;  and  though  grace  may  be  sometimes 
united  with  incorrectness,  it  cannot  proceed  from  it." 

♦  * 

Discourse  XI. 

"  These  observations  may  lead  to  very  deep  questions,  which  I  do  not 
mean  here  to  discuss;  among  others,  it  may  lead  to  an  inquiry,  why  we 
are  not  always  pleased  with  the  most  absolute  possible  resemblance  of  an 
imitation  to  its  original  object.  Cases  may  exist  in  which  such  a  resem- 
blance may  be  even  disagreeable.  I  shall  only  observe,  that  the  effect  of 
figures  in  wax-work,  though  certainly  a  more  correct  representation  than  can 
be  given  by  painting  or  sculpture,  is  a  sufficient  proof  that  the  pleasure  we 
receive  from  imitation  is  not  increased  merely  in  proportion  as  it  approaches 
to  minute  and  detailed  reality;  we  are  pleased,  on  the  contrary,  by  seeing 
ends  accomplished  by  apparently  inadequate  means." 

Discourse  III. 

"  I  should  be  sorry,  if  what  is  here  recommended  should  be  at  all  un- 
derstood to  countenance  a  careless  or  undetermined  manner  of  painting. 
For  though  the  painter  is  to  overlook  the  accidental  discriminations  of 
Nature,  he  is  to  exhibit  distinctly,  and  with  precision,  the  general  forms  of 
the  great  style  in  painting;  and  let  me  add,  that  he  who  possesses  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  exact  form  which  every  part  of  Nature  ought  to  have,  will  be 
fond  of  expressing  that  knowledge  with  correctness  and  precision  in  all  his 
works." 


DEFINITIONS. 


Aesthetics.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  beautiful,  and  its  various 
modes  of  representation  in  Nature  and  art ;  the  philosophy  of  the  fine  arts. 

Accent.  Emphasis  of  light  or  of  dark  in  a  light- and-shade  drawing  ; 
of  dark  in  an  outline  drawing  ;  and  of  color  or  of  light  and  dark  in  a  color 
sketch. 

Altitude.  The  perpendicular  distance  between  the  bases,  or  between 
the  vertex  and  the  base,  of  a  solid  or  plane  figure. 

Angle.  The  difference  in  direction  of  two  lines  which  meet  or  tend  to 
meet.  The  lines  are  called  the  sides^  and  the  point  of  meeting,  the  vertex 
of  the  angle. 

An  angle  is  measured  by  means  of  an  arc  of  a  circle  described  from  its 
vertex  as  a  centre  and  included  between  its  sides.  The  centre  of  the  arc  is 
the  vertex  of  the  angle. 

If  the  radius  of  the  circle  moves  through  -^^-^  of  the  circumference, 
it  produces  an  angle  which  is  taken  as  the  unit  for  measuring  angles, 
and  is  called  a  degree. 

The  degree  is  divided  into  sixty  equal  parts  called  minutes^  and  the 
minutes  into  sixty  equal  parts  called  seconds. 

Degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  are  denoted  by  symbols.  Thus  5  de- 
grees, 13  minutes,  12  seconds,  is  written  5°  13'  \i". 

A  Right  Angle  is  one  which  is  formed  by  the  radius 
moving  through  i  of  the  circumference.  •  It  is  an  angle  of 
90°.  A  straight  angle  is  formed  when  the  radius  has 
moved  over  \  of  the  circumference.     It  is  an  angle  of  180°. 

Acute  Angle.     An  angle  less  than  a  right  angle. 


Obtuse  Angle.     An  angle  greater  than  a  right  angle. 
Oblique  Angle.     One  which  is  not  a  right  or  a  straight  angle. 


^34 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

Reflex  Angle.     One  which  is  greater  than  i8o°. 

Adjacent  Angle.     Two   angles   are   adjacent   when 
they  have  the  same  vertex  and  a  common  side. 


/ 


Dihedral   Angle.      The   opening   between    two   intersecting 
planes. 

Solid  Angle.     One  formed  by  planes  which  meet  at  a  point. 

Apex,    ^he  summit  or  highest  point  of  an  object. 

Appearance.  The  image  produced  in  the  eye  by  the  outline,  light  and 
shade,  or  color  of  any  object. 

Arc.     See  Circle. 

Arrangement.     The  orderly  disposition  of  objects  or  forms. 

A:sis  of  a  Solid.  An  imaginary  straight  line  passing  through  its  centre 
and  about  which  the  different  parts  are  symmetrically  arranged. 

Axis  of  a  Figure.  A  straight  line  passing  through  the  centre  of  a 
figure,  and  dividing  it  into  two  equal  parts. 

Axis  of  Symmetry.  A  straight  line  so  placed  in  a  solid  or  a  plane 
figure  that  every  straight  line  meeting  it  at  right  angles  and  extending  in 
each  direction  to  the  boundary  of  the  soHd  or  figure  is  bisected  at  the 
point  of  meeting.  In  many  solids  and  plane  figures  an  axis  of  symmetry 
cannot  be  drawn. 

Balance.  The  equality  of  parts,  obtained  by  the  proper  distribution 
of  lines  or  of  light  and  dark. 

Base.  The  opposite  parallel  polygons  of  prisms.  The  polygon  oppo- 
site the  vertex  of  a  pyramid.  The  plane  surfaces  of  cyHnders  and  cones. 
The  opposite  parallel  sides  of  a  parallelogram  or  trapezoid.  The  shortest 
or  longest  side  of  an  isosceles  triangle,  and  any  side  in  any  other  triangle, 
but  usually  the  lowest. 

Bisect.     To  divide  into  two  equal  parts. 

Bisector.     A  line  which  bisects. 

BisymmetricaL     Having  one  side  the  exact  reverse  of  the  other  side. 

Blend.     To  soften  and  bring  together. 

Blocking-in  Lines.  The  lightest  and  simplest  suggestions  of  the 
leading  lines  and  masses  of  the  subject. 

Border.  Ornament,  usually  composed  of  units  regularly  repeated  along 
a  line. 


DEFINITIONS.  •  1 35 

Breadth.     Simplicity  due  to  large  masses  which  subordinate  details  to 
the  spirit  and  effect  of  the  whole. 

Chiaro-oscuro.     The  art  of  combining  light  and  shade. 

Cinquefoil.     A  figure  composed  of  five  leaf-like  parts. 


Circle.     A  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curved  line,  called  a 
circumference,  all  points  of  which  are  equally  distant  from  a     a 
point  within  called  the  centre. 

The  boundary  line  is  called  the  Circumference. 

Diameter.  A  straight  Hne  drawn  through  the  centre,  and  con- 
necting opposite  points  in  the  circumference,  as  a  b. 

Radius.  The  distance  from  its  centre  to  the  circumference, 
as  ce. 

Semi-circle.  Half  a  circle,  formed  by  bisecting  it  with  a  diam- 
eter, as  adb  a. 

Arc.     Any  part  of  the  circumference,  as  ^  ^. 

Chord.  A  straight  line  whose  ends  are  in  the  circurriference, 
as  fg. 

Segment.     The  part  of  a  circle  bounded  by  an  arc  and  a  chord, 

Sector.  The  part  of  a  circle  bounded  by  two  radii  and  an  arc, 
as  b  e  c  b. 

Quadrant.  A  sector  bounded  by  two  radii  and  one  fourth  of 
the  circumference,  ^.s  a  c  d  a. 

Tangent.     A  straight  line  which   meets   a  circumference,  but 
being  produced  does  not  cut  it,  as  k  d.     The  point  of  meeting  is 
called  \h.t  ;point  of  contact  or  point  of  tangency. 
Circumscribe.     A  polygon  is  said  to  be  circumscribed  about  a  circle 
when  each  side  of  the  polygon  is  a  tangent  to  the  circle  ;  and  a  circle  is  said 
to  be  circumscribed  about  a  polygon  when  the  circumference  of  the  circle 
passes  through  all  the  vertices  of  the  polygon. 
Color.      For  color  terms,  see  Color  Manual. 

CompoBition.     The  arrangement  of  the  different  lines,  parts,  and  masses 
of  a  subject. 


136 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Concave.     Curving  inwardly. 

Cone.  A  solid  bounded  by  a  plane  surface  called  the  base^  which  is  a 
circle,  ellipse,  or  other  curved  figure,  and  by  a  lateral  surface  which  is 
everywhere  curved,  and  tapers  to  a  point  called  the  vertex.  Its  base  names 
the  cone.     Thus  a  circular  cone  is  one  whose  base  is  a  circle. 

A  Right  Circular  Cone  is  generated  by  an  isosceles  triangle 
which  revolves  about  its  altitude  as  an  axis.  The  equal 
sides  ot  the  triangle  in  any  position  are  called  elements  of 
the  surface.  The  length  of  an  element  is  called  the  slant 
height  of  the  cone.  Unless  otherwise  stated  "  cone " 
means  a  right  circular  cone. 

A  Frustum  of  a  Cone  is  the  part  included  between  the  base 
and  a  plane  parallel  to  the  base  and  cutting  all  the  elements  of  the 
cone. 

A  Truncated  Cone  is  the  part  included  between  the  base  and 
a  plane  oblique  to  the  base  and  cutting  all  the  elements  of  the 
cone. 

Concentric.     Having  a  common  centre. 

Conic  Section.     A  section  obtained  by  cutting  a  cone  by  a  plane. 

Construction.     The  making  of  any  object. 

Construction  Lines.     The  lines  by  which  the  desired  result  is  obtained. 

Constructive  Drawing.  A  drawing  intended  for  the  workman  who  is 
to  make  the  object. 

Contour.     The  outline  of  the  general  appearance  of  an  object. 

Contour  Element.     An  element  which  is  in  the  contour  of  an  object. 

Contrast.  The  effect  due  to  the  juxtaposition  of  different  lines,  different 
forms,  different  masses  of  light  and  dark,  or  different  colors. 

Conventionalization.  In  art,  t*he  expression  of  the  spirit  and  impor- 
tant truths  of  Nature  by  a  subordination  of  less  important  features. 

Convergence.  Lines  extending  toward  a  common  point,  or  planes 
extending  toward  a  common  line. 

Convex.     Rising  or  swelling  into  a  spherical  or  rounded  form. 

Corner.  The  point  of  meeting  of  the  edges  of  a  solid,  or  of  two  sides 
of  a  plane  figure. 

Crescent.     A  figure  of  the  shape  of  the  new  moon. 


DEFINITIONS. 


137 


Cross.     Two  bars,  or  parts,  intersecting  or  crossing  each  other  in  vari- 
ous ways.     The  symbol  of  the  Christian  reHgion. 


*     *      ^ 


Greek  Cross.  Latin  Cross.  Maltese  Cross.  St.  Andrew's  Cross. 

Cross-hatched.  In  mechanical  drawing,  a  half  tinting  placed  upon  parts 
cut  by  a  cutting  plane.  In  free-hand  drawing,  the  use  of  lines  crossing  each 
other  and  producing  light  and  shade  effects. 

Curvature.     Variation  from  straightness. 

Curve.     A  line  of  which  no  part  is  straight. 

Reversed.     One  whose  curvature  is  first  in  one  direction    V. 
and  then  in  the  opposite  direction.  ) 

Spiral.     A   plane   curve   which   winds    about    and     ^ — s. 
recedes,  according  to  some  law,  from  its  point  of  begin-    \  fC7S\\\ 
ning,  which  is  called  its  centre.  \Sy^J 

Cylinder.     A  solid  bounded  by  a  curved  surface  and-  by  two 
opposite  faces  called  bases  ;  the  bases  may  be  ellipses,  circles,  or  ;  1 

other  curved  figures,  and  name  the  cylinder.     Thus  a  circular  i    I 

cylinder  (the  ordinary  form)  is  one  whose  bases  are  circles.  ^"^^^ 

A  Right  Circular  Cylinder  is  generated  by  the  revolution 
of  a  rectangle  about  one  side  as  an  axis.     The  side  about  which 
the  rectangle  revolves  is  called  the  height  of  the  cylinder,  also  its 
axis.     The  side  opposite  the  axis  describes  the  curved  surface  of  the 
cylinder,  and  in  any  of  its  positions  is  called  an  element  of  the  surface. 
Cylindrical.     Having  the  general  form  of  a  cylinder. 
Degree.     The  360th  part  of  a  circumference  of  a  circle. 
Describe.     To  make  or  draw  a  curved  line. 

Design.  Any  arrangement  or  combination  to  produce  desired  results  in 
industry  or  art. 

Develop.     To  unroll  or  lay  out  upon  one  plane  the  surface  of  an  object 

Diagonal.     A  straight  line  in  any  polygon  which  connects 

vertices  not  adjacent. 

In  regular  polygons,   diagonals  are  called  long  when  they 

pass  through  the  centre,    as  c  d,  and  short  when  they  extend    V 

between  parallel  sides,  as  «  ^. 


138 


FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 


Diameter.  See  Circle.  In  a  regular  polygon  with  an  even 
number  of  sides  a  line  joining  the  centres  of  two  opposite  sides 
is  often  called  a  diameter. 


Diverging  Lines.     Lines  extending  from  a  common  point. 
Edge.      The  intersection   of  any   two   surfaces.      The   boundary  line. 
Edges  are  straight  or  curved,  and  are  represented  by  lines. 

ElevatiSn.  A  drawing  made  on  a  vertical  plane  by  means  of  projecting 
lines  perpendicular  to  the  plane  from  the  points  of  the  object.  The  terms 
elevation,  vertical  projection,  and  front  view  all  have  the  same  meaning. 

Ellipse.     A  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  line  such  that  the  sum 
of  the  distances  of  any  point  in  it,  as  c,  from  two  given  points    /^35^ 
e  and  /",  called  foci.,  is  equal  to  a  given  line,  as  a  b.     The  point    vj_^ 
midway  between  the  foci  is  called  the  centre. 

The  Transverse  Axis  of  an  ellipse  is  the  longest  diameter  that 
can  be  drawn  in  it,  as  a  b.     It  is  also  called  the  major  or  long  axis. 

The  Conjugate  Axis  is  the  shortest  diameter  which  can  be 
drawn,  as  c  d.  It  is  also  called  the  7ninor  or  short  axis.  The 
foci,  e  and  /',  are  two  points  in  the  long  diameter  whose  distance 
from  c  or  ^  is  equal  to  one-half  a  b. 

Face.  One  of  the  plane  surfaces  of  a  solid.  It  may  be  bounded  by 
straight  or  curved  edges. 

Finishing.  Completing  a  drawing,  whose  lines  have  been  determined, 
by  erasing  unnecessary  lines  and  strengthening  and  accenting  where  this  is 
required. 

Foreshortening.  Apparent  decrease  in  length,  due  to  a  position  oblique 
(or  parallel)  to  the  visual  rays. 

Free  Arm  Movement.     Movement  of  the  arm  from  the  shoulder. 

Free-hand.     Executed  by  the  hand,  without  the  aid  of  instruments. 


Fret.     A  band  or  border  composed  of  lines  forming  a  suc- 


cession of  angles  and  often  interlacing.  J  U  U  ! 

Frustiun.     See  Cone  and  Pyramid. 

Generated.     Produced  by. 

Geometric.     According  to  geometry. 

Gradation.     A  gradual  change  from  light  to  dark,  or  from  one  color  to 
another. 


DEFINITIONS.  1 39 

Half-tint.  The  shading  produced  by  means  of  parallel  equidistant 
lines. 

Hemisphere.     Half  a  sphere,  obtained  by  bisecting  a  sphere  by 
a  plane. 

Horizon.     In  pictorial  art,  a  horizontal  line  at  the  level  of  the  eye. 

Horizontal.     Parallel  to  the  surface  of  smooth  water.  

In  drawings,  a  line  parallel  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  sheet  is  called 
horizontal. 

Inscribe.  A  polygon  is  said  to  be  inscribed  in  a  circle  when  all  its 
vertices  are  in  the  circumference  of  the  circle  ;  and  a  circle  is  said  to  be 
inscribed  in  a  polygon  when  the  circumference  of  the  circle  is  touched  by 
each  side  of  the  polygon. 

Instrumental.     By  the  use  of  instruments. 

Interlacing.  The  arrangement  of  one  part  of  a  design  so  that  it  passes 
alternately  above  and  below  another  part. 

Lateral  Surface.     The  surface  of  a  solid  excluding  the  base  or  bases. 

Level  of  the  Eye.  The  level  or  position  of  a  horizontal  plane  passing 
through  the  spectator's  eye. 

Line.  A  line  has  length  only.  In  a  drawing  its  representation  has 
width  but  is  called  a  line. 

Straight.     One  which  has  the  same  direction  through- 
out its  entire  length. 

Curved.     One  no  part  of  which  is  straight. 

Broken.      One    composed    of    different   successive 
straight  lines. 

Mixed.     One  composed  of  straight  and  curved  lines. 

Centre.     A  line  used  to  indicate  the  centre  of  an  object. 

Construction.     A  working  line  used  to  obtain  required  lines. 

Dotted.     A  line  composed  of  short  dashes.       

Dash.     A  line  composed  of  long  dashes. 

Dot  and  Dash.     A  line  composed  of  dots 
and  dashes  alternating. 

Dimension.     A  line  upon  which  a  dimension  is  placed. 


140 


FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

Full.     An  unbroken  line,  usually  represent- 
ing a  visible  edge. 


Shadow.     A  line  about  twice  as  wide  as  the  ordinary  full  line. 

A  straight  line  is  often  called  simply  a  hne,  and  a  curved  line,  a 
curve. 

Longitudinal.     In  the  direction  of  the  length  of  an  object. 

Model.  '*A  form  used  for  study. 

Oblique.     Neither  horizontal  nor  vertical. 


Oblong.     A  rectangle  with  unequal  sides.  I  I 


Ornament.     Decorative  arrangement  of  line,  light  and  shade,  color,  or 
relief. 

Historic.     That  designed  in  previous  ages. 

Oval.     A  plane  figure  resembling  the  longitudinal  section 
egg  ;   or  elliptical  in  shape. 

Overall.     The  entire  length. 


ion  of  an   /"^     ^ 

0 


Ovoid.     An  egg-shaped  solid. 

Parallel.     Having  the  same  direction  and  everywhere  equally     " 

distant.  1 1    AX 

Parallelogram.     See  Quadrilateral. 
'  Pattern.     That  which  is  used  as  a  guide  or  copy  in  making  anything. 
Flat.     One  made  of  paper  or  other  thin  material. 

Solid.     One  which  reproduces  the  form  and  size  of  the  object 
to  be  made. 
Perimeter.     The  boundary  of  a  closed  plane  figure. 


Perpendicular.     At  an  angle  of  90°. 


\ 


Perspective.  The  art  of  making  upon  a  plane,  called  the  picture  plane^ 
such  a  representation  of  objects  that  the  lines  of  the  drawing  appear  to 
coincide  with  those  of  the  object,  when  the  eye  is  at  one  fixed  point  called 
the  station  point. 

Diagram.  An  exact  perspective  drawing  obtained  scientifically 
by  perspective  methods.  It  is  often  very  false  pictorially  when  not 
seen  from  the  station  point. 


DEFINITIONS. 


141 


Parallel.  Diagram  perspective  which  represents  a  cubical 
form  by  the  use  of  one  vanishing  point,  and  represents  by  its  real 
shape  any  face  parallel  to  the  picture  plane. 

Angular.  Diagram  perspective  in  which  two  sets  of  horizontal 
edges  of  a  cubical  form  are  at  angles  to  the  picture  plane,  and  the 
object  is  thus  represented  by  the  use  of  two  vanishing  points. 

Oblique.  Diagram  perspective  in  which,  none  of  the  edges  of 
a  cubical  form  being  parallel  to  the  picture  plane,  it  is  represented 
by  the  use  of  three  vanishing  points. 

Free-hand  or  Model  Drawing.  A  drawing  which,  without 
confining  the  eye  to  the  station  point,  represents  as  far  as  possible 
the  actual  appearance  of  objects.  It  is  made  free-hand,  and  is  for 
most  purposes  more  satisfactory  than  an  exact  diagram  perspective. 

Plan.  Plan,  horizontal  projection,  and  top  view  have  the  same  meaning, 
and  designate  the  representation  of  an  object  made  on  a  horizontal  plane 
by  means  of  vertical  projecting  lines.  In  architecture  it  means  a  horizon- 
tal section. 

Plane  Figure.     A  part  of  a  plane  surface  bounded  by  lines. 

A  plane  figure  is  called  rectilmear  if  bounded  by  straight  lines,  curvi- 
linear if  bounded  by  curved  Hues,  and  inixtilinear  if  bounded  by  both 
straight  and  curved  lines. 

Similar  figures  are  those  that  have  the  same  shape. 

Plinth.  A  cylinder  or  prism,  whose  axis  is  its  least  dimen-  y — -_ 
sion.  It  is  circular^  triangular^  square^  etc.,  according  as  it  has  v^_____\y 
circles,  triangles,  squares,  etc.,  for  bases. 

Polygon.     A  plane  figure  bounded  by  straight  lines. 

An  Equilateral  Polygon  is  one  whose  sides  are  all  equal. 

An  Equiangular  Polygon  is  one  whose  angles  are  all  equal. 

A  Regular  Polygon  is  one  which  is  equilateral  and  equiangular. 

Parallel  Polygons  are  those  whose  sides  are  respectively 
parallel. 


o  o 


142  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

Triangle.     A  polygon  having  three  sides  (i). 
Quadrilateral.     A  polygon  having  four  sides  (2). 
Pentagon.     A  polygon  having  five  sides  (3). 
Hexagon.     A  polygon  having  six  sides  (4). 
Heptagon.     A  polygon  having  seven  sides  (5). 

'O  o  o  o 

6.  7.  8.  9.  10. 

Octagon.     A  polygon  having  eight  sides  (6). 
NoNAGON.     A  polygon  having  nine  sides  (7). 
Decagon.     A  polygon  having  ten  sides  (8). 
Undecagon.     a  polygon  having  eleven  sides  (9). 
Dodecagon.     A  polygon  having  twelve  sides  (10). 

The  centre  of  a  regular  polygon  is  the  common  intersection  of 
perpendiculars  erected  at  the  middle  points  of  its  sides. 

The  polygons  represented  in  the  figures  are  regular  polygons. 

A  Polyhedron  is  a  solid  bounded  by  planes.      It  is  regular  when  its 
faces  are  regular  equal  polygons. 

There  can  be  but  five  regular  polyhedrons  : 

1.  The  Tetrahedron,  or  Pyramid,  which  has  four  triangular 
faces. 

2.  The  Hexahedron,  or  Cube,  which  has  six  square 
faces. 

3.  The  Octahedron,  which  has  eight  triangular  faces. 

4.  The  Dodecahedron,  which  has  twelve  pentagonal  faces. 

5.  The  IcoSAHEDRON,  which  has  twenty  triangular  faces. 

The  term  hexahedron  is  applied  only  to  a  regular  polyhedron: 
the  other  terms  may  be  applied  to  irregular  polyhedrons. 

An  infinite  number  of  irregular  polyhedrons,  also  an  infinite 
number  of  other  soHds  bounded  by  plane  or  curved  surfaces,  may  be 
conceived. 


DEFINITIONS. 


143 


Prism.  A  solid  bounded  by  two  equal  parallel  polygons,  having  their 
equal  sides  parallel,  and  by  three  or  njore  parallelograms. 

The  polygons  are  called  the  bases  of  the  prism,  the  parallelograms  the 
lateral  faces,  the  intersections  of  the  lateral  faces,  the  lateral  edges. 

Prisms  are  called  triangular,  square,  pentagonal,  etc.,  according 
as  the  bases  are  triangles,  squares,  pentagons,  etc. 


e 


A  Right  Prism  is  one  in  which  the  edges  connecting  the 
bases  are  perpendicular  to  the  bases. 

An  Oblique  Prism  is  one  in  which  the  edges  connecting 
the  bases  are  not  perpendicular  to  the  bases. 

A  Regular   Prism  is  a  right  prism  whose  bases  are  regular 
polygons. 

A  Truncated  Prism  is  the  part  of  a  prism  included 
between  the  base  and  a  section  made  by  a  plane  inclined  to 
the  base,  and  cutting  all  the  lateral  edges. 

The  Altitude  of  a  prism  is  the  perpendicular  distance  between 
the  bases. 

The  Axis  of  a  regular  prism  is  a  straight  line  connecting  the 
centres  of  its  bases. 

A  Right  Section  of   a  prism  is  a  section  made  by  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  its  lateral  edges. 

A  Parallelopiped  is  a  prism  whose  bases  are  parallelograms. 

Produce.     To  continue  or  extend. 

Profile.     The  contour  outline  of  an  object. 

Projection.  Orthographic.  The  view  or  representation  of  an  object 
obtained  upon  a  plane  by  projecting  lines  perpendicular  to  the  plane. 

Pyramid.  A  sohd  of  which  one  face,  called  the  base,  is  a  polygon,  and 
the  other  faces,  called  lateral  faces,  are  triangles  having  a  common  vertex 
called  the  vertex  of  the  pyramid.  The  intersections  of  the  lateral  faces  are 
called  the  lateral  edges. 

A  pyramid  is  called  triangular,  square,  etc.,  according  as  its 
base  is  a  triangle,  square,  etc. 


144  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

A  Regular  Pyramid  is  one  whose  base  is  a  regular  polygon 
and  whose  vertex  is  in  a  perpendicular  erected  at  the  centre  of  the 
base.  Its  other  faces  are  equal  isosceles  triangles.  The  altitude  of 
any  of  these  triangles  is  called  the  slant  height  of  the  pyramid. 

A  Frustum  of  a  pyramid  is  the  part  included  between  ----^ 

the  base  and  a  plane  parallel  to  the  base  and  cutting  all  the  /  /     \ 

lateral  edges.  ^sL— — ' 

A  Truncated  Pyramid  is  the  part  included  between  a>\ 

the  base  and  a  plane  oblique  to  the  base  and  cutting  all  the  /  |\ 

lateral  edges.  ^-^1-^^ 

The  Axis  of  a  pyramid  is  a  straight  line  connecting  the  vertex 
and  the  centre  of  the  base. 

The  Altitude  of  a  pyramid  is  the  perpendicular  distance  from 
the  vertex  to  the  base. 

Quadrant.     See  Circle. 

Quadrilateral.  A  plane  figure  bounded  by  four  straight  lines.  These 
lines  are  the  sides.  The  angles  formed  by  the  lines  are  the  angles^  and 
the  vertices  of  these  angles  are  the  vertices  of  the  quadrilateral. 

A  Parallelogram  is  a  quadrilateral  which  has  its  opposite 
sides  parallel. 

A  Trapezium  is  a  quadrilateral  which  has  no  two  sides      / 1 

parallel.  L _J 

A  Trapezoid  is  a  quadrilateral  which  has  two  sides, 
and  only  two  sides,  parallel. 

A   Rectangle  is  a  quadrilateral  whose   angles   are 
right  angles. 


rj 


A  Square  is  a  rectangle  whose  sides  are  equal. 

A   Rhomboid  is   a   parallelogram   whose   angles   are 
oblique  angles. 

A  Rhombus  is  a  rhomboid  whose  sides  are  equal. 

The  side  upon  which  a  parallelogram  stands  and  the  opposite  side  are 
called  respectively  its  lower  and  upper  bases. 
Quadrisect.     To  divide  into  four  equal  parts. 


DEFINITIONS. 


145 


Quatrefoil.     A  figure  composed  of  four  leaf-like  parts. 

Radiation.     Proceeding  from  a  common  point  or  line. 
Reflected  Light.     The  light  seen  on  the  shadow  side  of  any  object,  and 
reflected  from  some  other  object. 

Relation.     The  harmony  or  contrast  of  form,  value,  or  color. 
Rendering  or  Handling.     The  way  in  which  a  medium  is  used. 

Repetition.  The  arrangement  of  a  unit  on  a  line,  around  a  centre, 
about  a  line  as  axis,  or  upon  geometric  lines  covering  a  surface. 

Representation.     Any  kind  of  drawing,  painting,  or  sculpture. 

Retreating.     Going  away  from. 

Rosette.     Arrangement  of  petal-like  units  about  a  centre. 

Section.  A  projection  upon  a  plane  parallel  to  a  cutting  plane  which 
intersects  any  object.  The  section  generally  represents  the  part  behind  the 
cutting  plane,  and  represents  the  cut  surfaces  by  cross-hatching. 

Sectional.     Showing  the  section  made  by  a  plane. 

Sector  and  Segment.     See  Circle. 

Shadow.  Shade  and  shadow  have  about  the  same  meaning,  as  gen- 
erally used  ;  but  it  will  be  well  to  designate  by  shadow  those  parts  of  an 
object  which  are  turned  away  from  the  direct  rays  of  hght,  while  those  sur- 
faces which  receive  less  direct  rays  and  are  intermediate  in  value  between 
the  light  and  the  shadow  are  called  shade  surfaces. 

Cast.     The  shadow  projected  on  any  body  or  surface  by  some 
other  body. 
Similar  Figures  are  those  which  have  the  same  shape. 
Solid.     A  solid  has  three  dimensions,  length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 
It  may  be  bounded  by  plane  surfaces,  by  curved  surfaces,  or  by  both  plane 
and  curved  surfaces.     As  commonly  understood,  a  sohd  is  a  limited  portion 
of  space  filled  with  matter,  but  geometry  does  not  consider  the  matter  and 
deals  simply  with  the  shapes  and  sizes  of  solids. 

Sphere.     A  solid  bounded  by  a  curved  surface  every  point 
of  which  is  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called  the  centre. 

A  sphere  may  be  generated  by  the  revolution  of  a  circle  about  a  diameter 
as  an  axis. 


146  FREE-HAND   DRAWING. 

Spheroid  (Ellipsoid).  A  solid  generated  by  the  revolution  of 
an  ellipse  about  either  diameter.  When  revolved  about  the 
long  diameter,  the  spheroid  is  called  prolate  or  the  long 
spheroid  ;  when  about  the  short  diameter,  it  is  called  oblate 
or  the  flat  spheroid.     The  earth  is  an  oblate  spheroid. 

Spiral.     See  Curve. 

Stippling^  Filling  in  the  space  between  hatching  lines,  or  producing  an 
effect,  by  means  of  dots. 

Surface.  The  boundary  of  a  solid.  It  has  but  two  dimensions,  length 
and  breadth. 

Surfaces  are  plane  or  curved. 

A  Plane   Surface  is  one  upon  which  a  straight  line  can  be 
drawn  in  any  direction. 

A  Curved  Surface  is  one  no  part  of  which  is  plane. 

The  surface  of  the  sphere  is  curved  in  every  direction,  while  the  curved 
surfaces  of  the  cyhnder  and  cone  are  straight  in  one  direction. 

The  surface  of  a  solid  is  no  part  of  the  solid,  but  is  simply  the  boundary 
of  the  solid.  It  has  two  dimensions  only,  and  any  number  of  surfaces  put 
together  will  give  no  thickness. 

Symbolism.  The  use  of  conventional  forms  to  suggest  ideas  not  inher- 
ent in  the  forms. 

Symmetry.  Design.  A  proper  adjustment  or  adaptation  of  parts  to 
one  another  and  to  the  whole. 

Bilateral.     Having  two  parts  in  exact  reverse  of  each  other. 

Symmetry.  Geometry.  If  a  solid  can  be  divided  by  a  plane  into  two 
parts  such  that  every  straight  line,  perpendicular  to  the  plane  and  extending 
from  the  plane  in  each  direction  to  the  surface  of  the  solid,  is  bisected  by 
the  plane,  the  solid  is  called  a  sy??tmetrical  solid,  and  the  plane  is  called  a 
plane  of  syimnetry.  If  two  planes  of  symmetry  can  be  drawn  in  a  solid, 
their  intersection  is  called  an  axis  of  symmetry.     See  Axis  of  Symmetry. 

The  line  about  which  a  plane  figure  revolves  when  it  generates  a  solid 
of  revolution  is  an  axis  of  symmetry  for  the  solid  ;  it  is  also  called  the  axis 
of  revolution. 

Tangent.  A  straight  line  and  a  curved  line,  or  two  curved  lines,  are 
tangent  when  they  have  one  point  common  and  cannot  intersect ;  lines  or 
surfaces  are  tangent  to  curved  surfaces  when  they  have  one  point  or  one 
line  common  and  cannot  intersect. 


147 


DEFINITIONS. 

Technique.     The  handling  or  way  in  which  an  effect  is  obtained. 
Texture.     The  character  of  a  surface. 


Trefoil.     A  figure  composed  of  three  leaf-like  parts. 


Triangle.  A  plane  figure  bounded  by  three  straight  lines.  These  lines 
are  called  the  sides.  The  angles  that  they  form  are  called  the  angles  of 
the  triangle,  and  the  vertices  of  these  angles,  the  vertices  of  the  triangle. 

Triangles  are  named  by  their  sides  and  angles. 

A  Scalene  Triangle  is  one  in  which  no  two  sides  are  equal. 

An  Isosceles  Triangle  is  one  in  which  two  sides  are 
equal. 

An  Equilateral  Triangle  is  one  in  which  the  three 
sides  are  equal. 

A  Right  Triangle  is  one  in  which  one  of  the  angles 
is  a  right  angle. 

An  Obtuse  Triangle  is  one  in  which  one  of  the 
angles  is  obtuse. 

An  Acute  Triangle  is  one  in  which  all  the  angles 
are  acute. 

The  Hypotenuse  is  the  side  of  a  right  triangle  opposite  the 
right  angle.     The  other  sides  are  called  the  legs. 

An  Equiangular  Triangle  is  one  in  which  the  three  angles 
are  equal.     The  value  of  each  angle  is  60°. 

The  Base  is  the  side  on  which  the  triangle  is  supposed  to  stand. 
In  an  isosceles  triangle,  the  equal  sides  are  called  the  legs,  the  other 
side  the  base ;  in  other  triangles  any  one  of  the  sides  may  be  called 
the  base. 

The  Altitude  is  the  perpendicular  distance  from  the  vertex  to 
the  base.     Except  in  the  isosceles  triangle,  there  are  three  altitudes. 

The  vertex  of  the  angle  opposite  the  base  is  often  called  the 
vertex  of  the  trianofle. 


148  FREE-HAND  DRAWING. 

Trisect.     To  divide  into  three  equal  parts. 

Truncated.     A  truncated  solid  is  the  part  of  a  solid  included  between 
the  base  and  a  plane  cutting  the  solid  oblique  to  the  base. 
Type  Form.     A  perfect  geometrical  plane  figure  or  solid. 
Unit  of  Design.     The  figure  repeated  in  a  design  or  arrangement. 

Value.  In  color  the  relative  amount  of  light  contained  in  different 
colors.     The  «irongest  value  is  the  lightest. 

As  used  by  artists  the  word  generally  means  the  difference  in  effect  due 
to  any  cause  whatever,  as  hght,  color,  shadow,  atmosphere,  etc. 

A  flat  value  is  one  with  no  gradation. 

Variety.  The  effect  due  to  the  combination  of  parts  which  are  not 
alike. 

Vertical.     Upright  or  perpendicular  to  a  horizontal  plane  or  line. 

Vertical  and  perpendicular  are  not  synonymous  terms. 

Vertex.  See  Angle,  Quadrilateral,  Triangle.  The  vertex  of  a  solid  is 
the  point  in  which  its  axis  intersects  the  lateral  surface. 

View.     See  Elevation.     Views  are  called  front,  top,  right  or  left  side, 
back,  or  bottom,  according  as  they  are  made  on  the  different  planes  of  pro- 
jection.     They  are   also  sometimes  named  according  to  the  part  of  the  ^^ 
object  shown,  as  edge  view,  end  view,  or  face  view. 

Working  Drawing.  One  which  gives  all  the  information  necessary  t( 
enable  the  workman  to  construct  the  object. 

Working  Lines.     See  Lines. 


i 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED   FOR   FAILURE  TO   RETURN 
THIS   BOOK   ON   THE   DATE   DUE.   THE   PENALTY 

w^I  L.  Increase  to  so  cents  on  the  fourth 

DAY    InD    TO     $t.OO    ON    THE    SEVENTH     DAY 
OVERDUE. 


MAR   20  1940 


TTtirn^-W 


JAN   9 


lUf- 


-*«lrj 


4M.v'/r1  p 


JUL  31  19^ 


9Mav52pP 


24kor'^t 


.SE2-25 


R  1940 


REC'D  LD 


-JUL  33  1941 


«GiH^-i95rj 


18Feb'59]T 


LD21-100to-7,'39(402s) 


"^f^^'a^wmm-^MIfmmi'rmt 


>CI 17238 


